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Cfic  Kural  Science  ferried 

Edited  bt  L.  H.  Bailet 


THE   PRINCIPLES   OF  AGRICULTURE 


Cf)e  Ctural  Science  ^erieg 

The  Soil. 

The  Spbating  of  Plants. 

Milk  axd  Its  Products. 

The  Fertility  of  the  Land. 

The  Principles  of  Fruit  Growing. 

Bush-Fruits. 

Fertilizers. 

The  Principles  of  Agriculture. 

Rural  Wealth  and  Welfare. 

The  Farmste/vd. 

The  Principles  of  Vegetable-Gardening. 

Farm  Poultry. 

The  Feeding  of  Animals. 

The  Farmer's  Business  Handbook. 

Irrigation  and  Drainage. 

The  Care  of  Animals. 

The  Horse. 

How  to  Choose  a  Farm. 

Forage  Crops. 

Bacteria  in  Relation  to  Coun^bt  Life. 

The  Nursery-Book. 

Plant-Breeding. 

The  Forcin'G-Book. 

Garden-Making. 

The  Pruning-Book. 

The  Practical  Garden-Book. 


THE  PRINCIPLES  OF 
AGRICULTURE 


A  Text  -  Book  foe 
Schools  and    Rural    Societies 


P  EDITED    BY 

L.    H:    BAILEY 


Nineteenth  Edition 

With  a  review  and  catechism  for  reading- 

clubs  and  teachers 


•Nphi  fork 
THE    MACMILLAN    COMPANY 

LONDON  :     MACMILLAN  &  CO..  Ltd. 

1913 

All  rights  reserved 


Copt  EIGHT,  1S9S,  1909 
Bv  L.  H.  BAILEY 


Set  up  and  electrotyped  December,  1898 
Reprinted  with  corrections  January,  1900;  January,  May,  1901 ; 
February,  June,  1902;  February.  July.  1903:  March,  1904;  July, 
1905;  April,  19C6;  August.  1907;  June.  190S;  January,  19C9; 
Re\-i3ed,  Jtine.  1909;  Januarj-.  1910:  June,  1911:  January-.  1912; 
January,   1913 


SS^ount  l^Ieaeant   I^iess 

J.  Horace  McFasla>"d  Co3ipa>t 
Haeeisbubg  •  PESXSTLVA>"IA 


PREFACE 

The  greatest  difficulty  in  the  teaching  of  agricul- 
ture is  to  tell  what  agriculture  is.  To  the  scientist, 
agriculture  has  been  largely  an  application  of  the 
teachings  of  agricultural  chemistr}-;  to  the  stockman, 
it  is  chiefly  the  raising  of  animals ;  to  the  horticul- 
turist, it  maj'  be  fruit-growing,  flower-growing,  or 
nursery  business ;  and  everyone,  since  the  establish- 
ment of  the  agricultural  colleges  and  experiment 
stations,  is  certain  that  it  is  a  science.  The  fact 
is,  however,  that  agriculture  is  pursued  primarily 
for  the  gaining  of  a  livelihood,  not  for  the  extension 
of  knowledge  :  it  is,  therefore,  a  business,  not  a  sci- 
ence. But  at  every  point,  a  knowledge  of  science  aids 
the  business.  It  is  on  the  science  side  that  the 
experimenter  is  able  to  help  the  farmer.  On  the 
business  side  the  farmer  must  rely  upon  himself ;  for 
the  person  who  is  not  a  good  business  man  cannot 
be  a  good  farmer,  however  much  he  may  know  of 
science.  These  statements  are  no  disparagement  of 
science,  for,  in  these  days,  facts  of  science  and  scien- 
tific habits  of  thought  are  essential  to  the  best 
farming :     but    thev    are    intended    to   emphasize    the 

(V) 

"^  PROPfuU  li.::.l.:r 

^  ^  /v.  C.  Side  College 


VI  PREFACE 

fact    that    business   method    is   the   master,   and   that 
teachings  of  science  are  the  helpmates. 

But  even  if  these  facts  are  fully  apprehended, 
the  teacher  and  the  farmer  are  apt  to  make  no 
distinction  between  the  fundamental  and  the  inci- 
dental applications  of  science,  or  between  principles 
and  facts.  Therefore,  the  mistake  is  often  made  of 
teaching  how  to  overcome  mere  obstacles  before  ex- 
plaining why  the  obstacles  are  obstacles.  How  to 
kill  weeds  is  a  mere  incident ;  the  great  fact  is  that 
good  farmers  are  not  troubled  with  weeds.  Rather 
than  to  know  kinds  of  weeds,  the  farmer  should 
know  how  to  manage  his  land.  How  to  know  the 
weeds  and  how  to  kill  them  is  what  he  calls  prac- 
tical knowledge,  but.  standing  alone,  it  is  really  the 
most  unpractical  kind  of  knowledge,  for  it  does  not 
tell  him  how  to  prevent  their  recurrence  year  after 
year.  The  learner  is  apt  to  begin  at  the  wrong 
end  of  his  problem.  This  is  well  illustrated  in  the 
customary  discussions  of  under -drainage.  The  pupil 
or  the  reader  is  first  instructed  in  methods  of  lay- 
ing drains.  But  drainage  is  not  the  unit.  The 
real  unit  is  texture  and  moisture  of  soils .-  plowing, 
draining,  green -cropping  are  means  of  producing  a 
given  or  desired  result.  The  real  subject-matter  for 
first  consideration,  therefore,  is  amelioration  of  soil 
rather  than   laving  of  drains.     When  the  farmer   has 


PREFACE  yii 

learned  how  to  prepare  the  land,  and  how  to  grow 
plants,  and  how  to  raise  animals,  then  he  may 
enquire  about  such  incidental  details  as  the  kinds 
of  weeds  and  insects,  the  brands  of  fertilizers,  the 
varieties  of  apples,  when  he  shall  till,  whether  he 
shall  raise  wheat  or  sweet  corn.  The  tailor  first 
learns  how  to  lay  out  his  garment  ;  but  the  farmer 
too  often  wants  to  sew  on  the  buttons  before  he 
cuts   his    cloth. 

Again,  the  purpose  of  education  is  often  misun- 
derstood by  both  teachers  and  farmers.  Its  purpose 
is  to  improve  the  farmer,  not  the  farm.  If  the  per- 
son is  aroused,  the  farm  is  likely  to  be  awakened. 
The  happy  farmer  is  a  more  successful  farmer  than 
the  rich  one.  If  the  educated  farmer  raises  no 
more  wheat  or  cotton  than  the  uneducated  neighbor, 
his  education  is  nevertheless  worth  the  cost,  for  his 
mind  is  open  to  a  thousand  influences  of  which  the 
other  knows  nothing.  One's  happiness  depends  less 
on  bushels  of   corn  than  on  entertaining  thoughts. 

Not  only  do  we  need  to  know  what  agriculture 
is,  but  we  should  know  the  relative  importance  of 
its  parts.  It  is  commonly  assumed  that  fertilizing 
the  land  is  the  one  most  fundamental  thing  in 
agriculture,  but  this  is  not  so  ;  for  if  but  one  thing 
about  farming  practices  were  to  be  explained,  that 
thing  should    be    the    tilling    of    the    land. 


VUl  PREFACE 

Agriculture,  then,  stands  upon  business,  but 
science  is  the  staff.  Business  cannot  be  taught  in 
a  book  like  this  ;  but  some  of  the  laws  of  science 
as  applied  to  farm -management  can  be  taught,  and 
it  is  convenient  to  speak  of  these  laws  as  the 
principles  of  agriculture.  Tli^se  principles  are  ar- 
ranged in  a  more  or  less  logical  order,  so  that  the 
teacher  may  have  the  skeleton  of  the  subject  before 
him.  The  subject  should  not  be  taught  until  it  is 
analyzed,  for  analysis  supplies  the  thread  upon  which 
the  facts  and  practices  may  be  strung.  The  best 
part   of  the  book,  therefore,  is  the  table  of  contents. 

A  book  like  this  should  be  used  only  by  persons 
who  know  how  to  observe.  The  starting-point  in 
the  teaching  of  agriculture  is  nature-study. —  the 
training  of  the  power  actually  to  see  things  and 
then  to  draw  proper  conclusions  from  them.  Into 
this  primary  field  the  author  hopes  to  enter :  but 
the  present  need  seems  to  be  for  a  book  of  prin- 
ciples designed  to  aid  those  who  know  how  to  use 
their    eyes. 

L.    H.    BAILEY. 

HoBTicrrrKAL  DEPARTMEyr, 
CoRyxLL  rsivERSiTT,  Dec.  1.  1*98. 


ANALYSIS 

INTRODUCTION    (pages  1-15) 

Paragrapfii 

1.  JVhat  Agriculture  Is 1  "9 

2.  The  Personal  Factors  upon  which  its  Success  Depends-— 

2a.    Upon  business  or  executive  ability 10-12 

26.    Upon  a  knowledge  of  natural  science 13-2 L 

3.  Its  Field  of  Production 22 

Part   I 
THE    SOIL 

CHAPTER   I 
The   Contents   of   the   Soil  (pages  16-36) 

1.  JVhat  the  Soil  Is 23,24 

2.  How  Soil  is  Made  — 

2a.    The  inorganic  elements 25-28 

2b.    The  organic  elements  and  agents 29-35 

2c.    Transportation  of  soils 36-40 

3.  Tlie  Resources  of  the  Soil 41-48 

CHAPTER   II 

The  Texture  and  Structure  op  thk  Soil  (pages  37-46) 

1.  What  is  Meant  by  Texture 49-51 

2.  Why  Good  Texture  and  Structure  are  Important 52,53 

3.  How  Good  Structure  Is  Obtained 54-59 

4.  Structure  and  Manures 60 

rix) 


X  ANALYSIS 

CHAPTER    in 

The   MoisxrRE  in  the    Soil   (pages  47-63) 
(By  L.  A.  CLnrros ,  Director,  Storrs  Experiment  Station,  Conn.) 

Paragraphs 

1.  Why  Moisture  Is  Important 61-63 

2.  How   Water  is  Held  in  the  Soil 64-69 

3.  Hotc  the  Moisture -holding  Capacity  of  the  Soil  May  be 

Increased  — 

3a.    The  capacity  of  the  soil 70-72 

3&.    Capacity  is  increased  by  the  addition  of  humus  .  73,  74 

3c.    Capacity  may  be  increased  by  under- drainage    .  75-78 

3d.    The  capacity  is  increased  by  proper  tillage    .    .  79-81 

4.  The  Conservation  of  Moisture 82, 83 

CHAPTER   IV 

The   Tillage  of  the   Soil  (pages  64-76) 

1.  What  Tillage  Is 84-86 

2.  nitat  Tillage  Does 87-89 

3.  How  Tillage  Is  Perform^  — 

3a.    By  deep-working  tools 90-97 

3?).    By  surface -working  tools 98-101 

3c.    By  compacting  tools 102-104 

CHAPTER   V 

EuRiCHiiTG   THE    SoiL  —  Farm    RESOURCES  (pages  77-86) 

1.  What  Farm  Resources  Are 105-107 

2.  Cropping  B-esources  — 

2a.    The  kinds  of    green-manures 108-111 

2b.    The  management  of    green-manures 112-117 

£.    Direct  Applications — 

3a.    Stable  manures 118-122 

3ft.    Other  dressings 123-126 


ANALYSIS  3:1 


CHAPTER    VI 

Enriching  the  Soil  —  Commercial,  Resources 
(pages  87-105) 

(By  G.  W.  Cavanaugh,  Professor  of  Agricultural  Chemisty,  Cornell 

University) 

Paragraphs 

1.  The  Elements    in    the    Soil 127-133 

2.  Nitrogen 134-139 

3.  Phosphoric  Acid 140-145 

4.  Potash 146-148 

5.  Amendments 149-153 

6.  Commercial  Fertilizers  — 

6a.    What  they  are 154-157 

66.    Advice  as  to  their  use 158-166 


Part   II 
THE    PLANT,  AND    CROPS 

CHAPTER    VII 

The    Offices   of    the    Plant  (pages  106-111) 

1.  The  Plant  and  the  Crop 167,168 

2.  The  Plant  in  its  Relation  to  Soil 169-171 

3.  T}ie  Plant  in  its  Relation  to  Climate 172,  173 

4.  The  Plant  in  its  Relation  to  Animal  Life 174,175 

5.  The  Plant  has  Intrinsic  Value  to  Man  — 

5a.    As  articles  of   food  or  beverage 176, 177 

5ft.    As  articles  used  in  the  arts 178 

5c.    As  articles  or  objects  to  gratify  aesthetic  tastes   .  179-181 

CHAPTER   VIII 
How   the   Plant   Lives  (pages  112-131) 

(By  B.  M.  DuGQAR,  Professor  of  Plant  Physiology,  Cornell  University) 
1.    The  Plant  Activities 182,  ISi? 


XU  ANALYSIS 

2.  The  Factors  of   Growth  —  Faragrapht 

2a.    Water  in  the  plant 184-189 

2b.    Soluble  salts  from  the  soil 190-192 

2e.    Oxygen 193-196 

2d.    Carbon  dioxid  and  sunlight 197-199 

2e.    Heat,  or  a  definite  temperature 200-202 

3.  The  Processes  of  Growth 203-207 

4.  Irritability 208-212 

CHAPTER    IX 
The    Propagation   of    Plants  (pages  132-144) 

1.  TIte  Kinds  of  Propagation 213-215 

2.  Seedage,  or  Propagation  by  Seeds  — 

2a.    Requisites  of   germination 216-221 

2b.   The  raising  of   seedlings 222-226 

3.  Propagation  by  Buds  — 

3a.    Why  and    how  bud  propagation  is  used  ....  227,228 

'Sb.    Undetaehed  buds 229,  230 

3c.    Detached  buds 231-241 

CHAPTER    X 
Preparation    of    Land  for   the    Seed  (pages  145-158) 

(By  I.  P.  Roberts,  Emeritus  Professor  of  .Agrieultnre, 
Cornell  University) 

1.  Factors  Which  Determine  tJie  Preparation  of  tlte  Seed-bed.  242,243 

2.  Tlie  Demands  of  the  Plant 244-249 

3.  The  Preparing  of  the  Seed-bed 250  255 

4.  Application  of   the  Foregoing  Principles  — 

4a.    Wheat 256-259 

ib.    Maize,  or  Indian  corn 260,  261 

4c.    Potatoes 262-264 

CHAPTER   XI 

Subsequent  Care  of  the   Plant  (pages  159-178) 

1.    By  Means  of  Tillage  — 

la.    In  general 265  270 

16.    In  fruit  plantations 271-277 


ANALYSIS  xm 

2.  By  Means  of  Pruning  a)t(l  Training —  Paragraphs 

2a.    Pruning  vs.  training 278,  279 

26.    The  healing  of  wounds 280-284 

2c.    The  principles  of  pruning 285-289 

3.  By  Keeping  Enemies  in  Check  — 

3a.    The  kinds  of  enemies 290-293 

36.    The  preventives  and  remedies 294-303 

CHAPTER   XII 

Pastures,  Meadows,  and  Forage  (pages  179-200) 

(By  I.  p.  Roberts) 

1.  Grass 304-306 

2.  Permanent  Pastures  — 

2a.    Preparation  of  the  land 307-310 

2b.    Maintaining  the  pasture 311-317 

3 .  Afeadoics  — 

3a.    Temporary  meadows 318-321 

3b.    Permanent  meadows 322-325 

3c.    Kinds  of  grasses  for  meadows 326-329 

4.  Other  Forage  Plants 330-335 

Part    III 
THE   ANIMAL,  AND    STOCK 

CHAPTER    XIII 
The   Offices  of  the   Animal  (pages  201-207) 

1.  The  Animal  and  the  Slock 336,337 

2.  The  Animal  in  Its  Relation  to  the  Soil 338,  339 

3.  Tlie  Animal  in  Its  Relation  to  the  Crop 340,  341 

4.  The  Animal  has  Intrinsic  Value  to  Man  — 

4a.    As  articles  of  food 342-344 

46.    As  articles  used  in  the  arts 345,  346 

4c.    As  companions 347 

5.  The  Animal  as  a  Beast  of  Burden 348-350 

6.  The  Animal  as  a  Pest -destroyer 351,352 

7.  The  Animal  Diversifies  Labor 353,354 


XIV  ANALYSIS 

CHAPTER   XIV 

How   THE    Animal   Lives  (pages  208-238) 

(By  James  Law,  Ex-Director  of  the  New  York  State  Veterinary  College, 
Cornell  University) 

1.  The  Cell,  and  its  Part  in  the  Vital  Processes —  Paragraphs 

la.    The  cell 355 

16.    Single-celled  animala 356-35!) 

Ic.    Many-celled  animals 360-366 

2.  The  Food  of  Animals  — 

2a.    Kind  of  food 367,368 

2b.    Food  constituents 369-376 

3.  Digestion  of  Food  — 

3a.    What  digestion  is 377,  378 

36.    The  saliva 379-385 

3c.    The  gastric  juice 386-393 

M.    Intestinal  digestion 394-401 

4.  Absorption  of   the  Digested  Matters  — 

4a.    How  absorption  takes  place 402-404 

46.    Destination  of  the  rich  blood  from  the  intestines.  40.5-409 

5.  Respiration,  or  Breathing  — 

5a.    What  breathing  is 410-413 

56.    Blood-changes  in  respiration 414-418 

5c.    Amount  of  air  required 419-421 

6.  Work;    Waste;  Rest— 

6a.    Waste  of  tissue 422,  423 

66.    Applications  to  practice 424-426 

CHAPTER   XV 

The    Feedikg   of   the   Akimal  (pages  239-257) 

(By  H.  H.  WiJfS,  Professor  of  Animal  Husbandry  in 
Cornell  University) 

1.  Sources  of  Food  of  Animals 427,428 

2.  How  the  Animal  Uses  Food 429-435 


ANALYSIS  3CV 

3.  Composition  of  Fodders—  Paragraphs 

3o.  Classification      436 

36.  Water 437-439 

3c.  Ash 440,  441 

3d.  Albuminoids 442  444 

3e.  Carbohyhrates 445  447 

3/.  Fats 448,  449 

4.  Feeding  — 

4«.  Nutritive  ratio 450  457 

4fe.  Quantity  of  food  required 458-463 

4c.  Feeding  standards 464,465 

4rf.  Bulk  in  the  ration 466-408 

4e.  Palatableness 469  470 

4/.  Cooking  and  preparing  the  food 471-473 

CHAPTER   XVI 

The    Management   of    Stock  (page  258-278) 
(By  I.  p.  Roberts) 

1.  The  Breeding  of  Stock  — 

la.    What  is  meant  by  breeding 474-477 

lb.    The  mental  ideal 478-^81 

Ic.    How  to  attain  the  ideal     .    .    .  ' 482-487 

2.  Where  Stock-raising  Is  Advisable 488-491 

3.  How  Much  Stock  May  be  Kept 492-50(? 

4.  The  Care  of  Stock— 

4a.    Housing 501-505 

4b.    Water 5O6,  507 

4c-     Food 508-510 

GLOSSARY  (pages  281-288) 

SUGGESTIONS   TO  READING  CLUBS  AND  TO  TEACHERS 
(pages  289-323) 

INDEX  (pages  325-336) 


THE   PRINCIPLES  OF  AGRICULTURE 


INTRODUCTION 

1.  IVhat  Agriculture  Is 

1.  Agriculture,  or  farming,  is  the  business  of 
raising  products  from  the  land.  These  products 
are  of  two  classes  :  crops,  or  plants  and  their 
products  ;  stock,  or  animals  and  their  products. 
The  former  are  direct  products  of  the  land  ;  the 
latter  are  indirect  products  of  the  land. 

2.  Agriculture  also  comprises,  to  a  certain 
extent,  the  marketing  or  selling  of  its  products. 
As  marketable  commodities,  the  products  are  of 
two  classes  :  primary,  or  those  which  are  put  on 
the  market  in  their  native  or  natural  condition, 
as  wheat,  potatoes,  bananas,  eggs,  milk,  wool; 
secondary,  or  those  which  are  put  on  the  market 
in  a  manufactured  condition,  as  butter,  cheese, 
cider,  evaporated  fruits. 

3.  The  chief  contribution  of  agi'iculture  to 
the  wealth  and  welfare  of  the  world  is  the  pro- 
duction of  food.  Its  second  contribution  is  the 
production  of   materials   for  clothing.     Its  third 

A  U) 


2  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

is  the  production  of  wood  or  timber,  used 
in  building  and  in  the  various  wood -working 
trades.  Other  contributions  are  the  production 
of  materials  used  in  medicine  and  in  various 
secondary  and  incidental  arts  and  manufactures. 

4.  The  ideal  agriculture  maintains  itself. 
That  is,  it  is  able  to  thrive  forever  on  the  same 
land  and  from  its  own  resources.  The  land 
becomes  more  productive  with  time,  and  this 
even  without  the  aid  of  fertilizing  materials 
from  the  outside.  This  state  is  possible  only 
with  a  mixed  husbandry,  in  which  rotations  of 
crops  and  the  raising  of  animals  are  necessary 
features.  The  more  specialized  any  agricultural 
industry  becomes,  the  more  must  it  depend  upon 
outside  and  artificial  aids  for  the  enrichment  of 
the  land  and   for  its  continued   support. 

5.  Agriculture  may  be  roughly  divided  into 
four  general  branches  or  departments  :  agricul- 
ture in  its  restricted  sense,  animal  industry,  for- 
estry, horticulture. 

G.  Agriculture  in  its  restricted  sense  —  some- 
times, but  erroneously,  called  agriculture  proper — 
is  a  term  applied  to  the  general  management 
of  lands  and  farms,  and  to  the  growing  of  the 
staple  grain  and  fiber  crops.  In  North  America, 
the  use  of  the  term  agriculture  has  been  restricted 
to  the  above  application  largely  through  the  in- 
fluence   of   agricultural   colleges    and    experiment 


INTRODUCTION  o 

stations,  in  which  the  general  field  of  agriculture 
has  been  divided  into  various  special  subjects. 

7.  Animal  industry  is  the  raising  of  animals, 
either  for  direct  sale  or  use  or  for  their  pro- 
ducts. It  is  customary  to  speak  of  it  as  com- 
prising three  departments:  stock-raising,  or  the 
general  growing  of  mammals,  as  cattle,  horses, 
sheep;  dairy  husbandry,  or  the  production  of 
milk  and  milk  products;  poultry- raising,  or  the 
growing  of  fowls,  as  chickens,  turkeys,  geese, 
ducks.  In  its  largest  sense,  it  comprises  other  de- 
partments, as  apiculture  or  bee -raising,  fish -cul- 
ture, ostreaculture  or  oyster -raising,  and  the  like. 

8.  Forestry  is  the  growing  of  timber  and 
woods.  Its  objects  are  two :  to  obtain  a  sala- 
ble product ;  to  produce  some  secondary  effect 
upon  the  region,  as  the  modification  of  climate 
or  the  preservation  of  the  water-supply  to  rivers 
and  lakes. 

9.  Horticulture  is  the  growing  of  fruits, 
kitchen  -  garden  vegetables,  and  ornamental 
plants.  It  has  been  divided  into  four  depart- 
ments :  pomology,  or  fruit-growing  ;  olericul- 
ture, or  vegetable  -  gardening  ;  floriculture,  or 
the  growing  of  flowers  and  plants  for  their  own 
or  individual  uses  as  means  of  ornament;  land- 
scape horticulture,  or  the  growing  and  planting 
of  ornamental  plants  for  their  uses  in  mass 
effects   in   the   landscape    (on   the   lawn). 


4  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

2.    The   Personal    Factors    Upon   Which    Its 
Success  Depends 

2a.    Upon    business    or    executive    ability 

10.  Since  the  farmer  makes  a  living  by 
means  of  trade,  it  follows  that  ability  to  man- 
age business  and  affairs  is  requisite  to  his  suc- 
cess. Executive  ability  is  as  needful  to  him  as 
to  the  merchant  or  the  manufacturer  ;  and  the 
lack  of  such  ability  is  probably  the  commonest 
and  most  serious  fault  with  our  agiiculture.  As 
the  conditions  of  trade  are  ever  changing,  so  the 
methods  of  the  farmer  must  be  amenable  to 
modification.  He  must  quickly  and  completely 
adapt  himself  to  the  commerce  of  the  time. 
Manifestly,  however,  this  business  capability 
cannot  be  taught  by  books.  It  is  a  matter  of 
temperament,  home  training,  and  o^jportunity. 
Like  all  i>emianent  success,  business  prosperity 
depends  upon  correct  thinking,  and  then  upon 
the  correct  application  of  the  thinking.  Suc- 
cessful agriculture,  therefore,  is  a  matter  of 
personality   more    than    of    circumstances. 

11.  The  compound  result  of  executive  ability 
and  experience  may  be  expressed  in  the  term 
farm  -  practice.  It  is  the  judgment  of  the 
farmer  upon  the  question  in  hand.  However 
much    he    may    learD     from    science,     his    own 


iNTRODt'CTIOK  5 

experience  on  his  own  farm  must  tell  him  what 
crops  to  gi'ow,  how  to  fertilize  his  land,  what 
breeds  >  and  varieties  to  raise,  when  and  how  to 
sow  and  to  reap.  The  experience  of  one  farmer 
is  invaluable  to  another,  but  each  farm  is 
nevertheless  a  separate  and  local  problem,  which 
the  farmer  must  think  out  and  work  out  for 
himself. 

12.  The  farmer  must  be  able  not  only  to 
raise  his  products,  but  also  to  sell  them.  He 
must  produce  either  what  the  trade  demands, 
or  be  able  to  sell  products  which  are  not  known 
in  the  general  market.  In  other  words,  there 
are  two  tj'pes  of  commercial  effort  in  farming : 
growing  the  staple  products  for  the  world's 
markets  (as  wheat,  beans,  maize,  meat),  in 
which  case  the  market  dictates  the  price  ;  grow- 
ing special  products  for  particular  or  personal  sale 
(as  the  products  of  superior  excellence,  and 
luxuries),  in  which  case  the  producer  looks  for 
his  customers  and  dictates  the  price. 

26.    Upon   a   Tiuoidedge  of  natural  science 

13.  The  farmer,  however,  has  more  problems 
to  deal  witli  than  those  connected  with  trade. 
He  must  raise  products :  and  such  production 
depends  upon  the  exercise  of  much  special 
knowledge   and   skill.    The   most   successful   pro- 


6  THE     PRINCIPLES     OF     AGRICULTURE 

duction  of  agricultural  products  rests  upou 
the  application  of  many  principles  and  facts  of 
natural  science ;  and  the  importance  of  such 
application  is  rapidly  increasing,  with  the  com- 
petitions and  complexities  of  civilization.  The 
study  of  these  natural  sciences  also  establishes 
habits  of  correct  thinking,  and  opens  the  mind 
to  a  larger  enjoyment  of  life, —  for  happiness, 
like  success,  depends  upon  habits  of  thought. 
The  farmer  should  live  for  himself,  as  well  as 
for  his  crops.  The  sciences  upon  the  knowledge 
of  which  the  best  agricultural  practice  chiefly 
depends  may  now  be  mentioned,  being  stated 
approximately  in  the  order  of  their  importance 
to  the  actual  practice  of  the  modern  farmer. 

1-4.  Physics.  The  physical  properties  and 
actions  of  bodies  are  fundamentally  concerned 
in  every  agTicultural  result,  whether  the  farmer 
knows  it  or  not.  The  influences  of  light  and 
heat,  the  movements  of  fluids  in  soil,  plant  and 
animal,  the  forces  concerned  in  every  machine 
and  appliance,  are  some  of  the  most  obvious  of 
these  physical  problems.  So  important  to  the 
farmer  is  a  knowledge  of  physics  that  "agricul- 
tural physics"  is  now  a  subject  of  instruction 
in  colleges.  The  most  important  direct  applica- 
tion of  a  knowledge  of  physics  to  agi'icultural 
practice  has  come  as  a  result  of  recent  studies 
of  the  soil.     The  questions  of  soil  moisture,  soil 


INTRODUCTION  7 

texture,  the  tilling  of  land,  and  the  acceleration 
of  chemical  activities  in  the  soil,  are  essentially 
questions  of  physics;  and  these  are  the  kinds 
of  scientific  problems  which  the  farmer  needs 
first  to   apprehend. 

15.  Mechanics.  In  practice,  mechanics  is  an 
application  of  the  laws  of  physics.  The  ele- 
mentary principles  of  mechanics  are  apprehended 
by  the  farmer  unconsciously,  as  a  result  of 
experience  ;  but  since  modern  agriculture  is 
impossible  without  numerous  and  often  elaborate 
mechanical  devices,  it  follows  that  it  is  not 
enough  that  the  farmer  be  self-taught.  At  every 
turn  the  farmer  uses  or  applies  physical  forces, 
in  tools,  vehicles,  and  machines.  His  work 
often  takes  him  into  the  field  of  civil  en- 
gineering. To  show  how  much  the  farmer 
is  dependent  on  practical  mechanics,  we  need 
mention  only  implements  of  tillage,  problems 
associated  with  the  draughts  of  horse  tools, 
the  elaborate  harvesting  machinery,  threshers 
and  feed -mills  and  milk -working  machinery  and 
the  power  to  run  them,  fruit  evaporating  ma- 
chinery, pumps,  windmills,  hydraulic  rams,  con- 
struction of  water  supplies,  problems  of  animal 
locomotion. 

16.  Plant-knowledge,  or  botany.  Since  the 
plant  is  the  primary  product  of  the  farm,  a 
knowledge  of  its  characteristics  and   kinds  is  of 


8  THE     PRINCIPLES     OF     AGRICULTURE 

fundamental  importance  to  the  farmer.  From 
the  farmer's  standpoint,  there  are  four  great 
departments  of  plant -knowledge  :  physiology',  or 
a  knowledge  of  the  way  in  which  the  plant  lives, 
grows,  and  multiplies  ;  patholog}',  or  a  knowl- 
edge of  mal- nutrition  and  diseases  ;  systematic 
botany,  or  a  knowledge  of  the  kinds  of  plants  ; 
ecology,  or  a  knowledge  of  the  inter-relations 
between  plants  and  their  enyironments  (or  sur- 
roundings), and  how  they  are  modified  by 
changes  in  environments,  by  crossing,  and  by 
breeding. 

17.  Animal-knowledge,  or  zoology.  There  are 
also  four  general  directions  in  which  animal- 
knowledge  appeals  to  the  farmer :  physiology, 
with  its  practical  applications  of  feeding,  hous- 
ing, and  general  care  of  animals  ;  pathology',  or 
knowledge  of  mal-nutrition  and  diseases  (with 
special  applications  in  the  practice  of  sm'gery 
and  medicine) ;  kinds  of  animals,  and  the  life- 
histories  of  those  which  are  particularly  bene- 
ficial or  injurious  to  agriculture  (with  special 
applications  in  economic  entomology  and  eco- 
nomic  ornithology) ;    ecology  and    breeding. 

18.  Chemistry.  There  are  two  general  direc- 
tions in  which  chemistry  appeals  to  the  agri- 
culturist :  in  enlarging  his  knowledge  of  the 
life-processes  of  plants  and  animals  ;  and  in 
affording  direct  information   of    the   composition 


INTRODUCTION  9 

of  many  materials  used  or  produced  on  the 
farm.  In  practice,  chemistry  aids  the  farmer 
chiefly  in  suggesting  how  he  may  feed  plants 
(fertilize  the  land)  and  animals.  So  many  and 
important  are  the  aids  which  chemistry  extends 
to  agriculture,  that  the  various  subjects  involved 
have  been  associated  under  the  name  of  "agri- 
cultural chemistry."  This  differs  from  other 
chemistry  not  in  kind,  but  only  in  the  subjects 
which  it   considers. 

19.  Climatology.  Climate  determines  to  a 
large  extent  the  particular  treatment  or  care 
which  the  farmer  gives  his  crops  and  stock.  It 
also  profoundly  influences  plants  and  animals. 
They  change  when  climate  changes,  or  when 
they  are  taken  to  other  climates.  Climate  is 
therefore  a  powerful  agency  in  producing  new 
breeds  and  new  varieties.  The  science  of 
weather,  or  meteorology,  is  also  intimately 
associated   with   the   work   of   the    farmer. 

20.  Geology.  The  agricultural  possibilities  of 
any  region  are  intimately  associated  with  its 
surface  geology,  or  the  way  in  which  the  soil 
was  formed.  A  knowledge  of  the  geology  of 
his  region  may  not  greatly  aid  the  farmer  in 
the  prosecution  of  his  business,  but  it  should 
add   much    interest  and    zest   to   his    life. 

21.  We  now  apprehend  that  agriculture  is  a 
complicated     and     difficult    business.      Founded 


10  THE     PRINCIPLES     OF     AGRICULTURE 

upon  trade,  and  profoundly  influenced  by  every 
commercial  and  economic  condition,  its  suc- 
cessful prosecution  nevertheless  depends  upon 
an  intimate  and  even  expert  knowledge  of 
many  natural  sciences.  Aside  from  all  this, 
the  farmer  has  to  deal  with  great  numbers  of 
objects  or  facts:  thousands  of  species  of  plants 
are  cultivated,  and  many  of  these  species  have 
hundreds  and  thousands  of  varieties ;  many 
species  of  animals  are  domesticated,  and  each 
species  has  distinct  breeds.  Each  of  these  sep- 
arate facts  demands  specific  treatment.  More- 
over, the  conditions  under  which  the  farmer 
works  are  ever  changing :  his  innumerable  prob- 
lems are  endlessly  varied  and  complicated  by 
climate,  seasons,  vagaries  of  weather,  attacks  of 
pests  and  diseases,  fluctuations  in  labor  supply, 
and  many  other  unpredictable  factors. 

3.     Its  Field  of  Prorluci'ion 

22.  In  the  production  of  its  wealth,  agricul- 
ture operates  in  three  gi'eat  fields, — with  the 
soil,  the  plant,  and  the  animal.  Although  aided 
at  every  point  by  knowledge  of  other  subjects, 
its  final  success  rests  upon  these  bases;  and 
these  are  the  fields,  therefore,  to  which  a  text- 
book may  give  most  profitable  attention. 


INTRODUCTION  11 

SUGGESTIONS  ON   THE  FOREGOING  PARAGRAPHS 

\a.  The  word  agriculture  is  a  compound  of  the  Latin  agri, 
"field,"  and  cultura,  "tilling."  Farming  and  husbandry  are 
synonymous  with  it,  when  used  in  their  broadest  sense;  but  there 
is  a  tendency  to  restrict  these  two  words  to  the  immediate  prac- 
tice, or  practical  side,  of  agriculture. 

2a.  It  is  often  difficult  to  draw  a  line  of  demarkation  between 
agriculture  and  manufacture.  The  husbandmen  is  often  both 
farmer  and  manufacturer.  Manufacturing  which  is  done  on  the 
farm,  and  is  of  secondary  importance  to  the  raising  of  crops  or 
stock,  is  commonly  spoken  of  as  agriculture.  The  manipulation 
or  manufacturing  of  some  agricultural  products  requires  such 
special  skill  and  appliances  that  it  becomes  a  business  by  itself, 
and  is  then  manufacture  proper.  Thus,  the  making  of  flour  is 
no  longer  thought  of  as  agriculture;  and  the  making  of  wine, 
jellies,  cheese,  butter,  canned  fruits,  and  the  like,  is  coming  more 
and  more  into  the  category  of  special  manufacturing  industries. 
Strictly  speaking,  agriculture  stops  at  the  factory  door. 

3a.  Agriculture  is  often  said  to  be  the  most  fundamental  and 
useful  of  occupations,  since  it  feeds  the  world.  Theoretically, 
this  may  be  true ;  but  a  high  state  of  civilization  is  possible  only 
with  diversification  of  interests.  As  civilization  advances,  there- 
fore, other  occupations  rise  in  relative  importance,  the  one  de- 
pending upon  the  other.  In  our  modern  life,  agriculture  is 
impossible  without  the  highly  developed  manufacturing  and  trans- 
portational  trades.  Broadly  speaking,  civilization  may  be  said  to 
rest  upon  agriculture,  transportation,  and  manufacture. 

4a.  Mixed  husbandry  is  a  term  used  to  denote  the  growing  of 
a  general  variety  of  farm  crops  and  stock,  especially  the  growing 
of  grass,  grain,  with  grazing  (pasturing)  and  general  stock-rais- 
ing. It  is  used  in  distinction  to  specialty-farming  or  the  raising 
of  particular  or  special  things,  as  fruit,  bees,  vegetables,  beef, 
eggs. 

46.  Self-perpetuating  industries  conduce  to  stability  of 
political  and  social  institutions.  "The  epochs  which  precede 
the  agricultural  occupation  of  a  country  are  commonly  about  as 


12  THE     PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

follows:  Discovery,  exploration,  hunting,  speculation,  lumber- 
ing or  mining.  The  real  and  permanent  prosperity  of  a 
country  begins  when  the  agriculture  has  evolved  so  far  as 
to  be  self-sustaining  and  to  leave  the  soil  in  constantly  better 
condition  for  the  growing  of  plants.  Lumbering  and  mining 
are  simply  means  of  utilizing  a  reserve  which  nature  has  laid 
by,  and  these  industries  are,  therefore,  self  limited,  and  are 
constantly  moving  on  into  unrobbed  territory.  Agriculture, 
when  at  its  best,  remains  forever  in  the  same  place,  and  gains 
in  riches  with  the  years ;  but  in  this  country  it  has  so  far  been 
mostly  a  species  of  mining  for  plant-food,  and  then  a  rushing 
on  for  virgin  lands." — Priticiples  of  Fruit-Gromug,  26. 

8a.  Forestry  is  popularly  misunderstood  in  this  country. 
The  forest  is  to  be  considered  as  a  crop.  The  salable  product 
begins  to  be  obtainable  in  a  few  years,  in  the  shape  of  trim- 
mings and  thinnings,  which  are  useful  in  manufacture  and  for 
fuel ;  whereas,  the  common  notion  is  that  the  forest  gives  no 
return  until  the  trees  are  old  enough  to  cut  for  timber.  One 
reason  for  this  erroneous  impression  is  the  fact  that  wood  has 
been  so  abundant  and  cheap  in  North  America  that  the  smaller 
products  have  not  been  considered  to  be  worth  the  saving;  but 
even  now,  in  the  manufacture  of  various  articles  of  commerce, 
the  trimmings  and  thinnings  of  forests  should  pay  an  income 
on  the  investment  in  some  parts  of  the  country.  If  a  manipu- 
lated forest  is  a  crop,  then  forestry  is  a  kind  of  agriculture,  and 
it  should  not  be  confounded  with  the  mere  botany  of  forest 
trees,  as  is  commonly  done. 

9a.  The  word  horticulture  is  made  up  of  the  Latin  hortus, 
"garden,"  and  cultura,  ''tilling."  In  its  broadest  sense,  the 
word  garden  is  its  equivalent,  but  it  is  commonly  used  to  desig- 
nate horticulture  as  applied  to  small  areas,  more  particularly 
when  the  subjects  are  flowers  and  kitchen -garden  vegetables. 
Etymologieally,  garden  refers  to  the  engirded  or  confined 
(walled-in  or  fenced-in)  area  immediately  surrounding  the 
residence,  in  distinction  to  the  ager  (la)  or  field  which  lay 
beyond.  Hortus  has  a  similar  significance.  Paradise  is,  in 
etymology,    a   name    for    an    enclosed    area;    and   the    term  was 


INTRODUCTION  13 

given  to  some  of  tUe  early  books  on  gardening,  e.  g.,  Parkinson's 
"Paradisus  Terrestris"  (1629),  which  is  an  account  of  the  orna- 
mental plants  of  that  period. 

Hrt.  King's  book  on  "The  Soil"  explains  the  intimate 
relation  of  physical  forces  to  the  productivity  of  the  land;  and 
the  author  is  Professor  of  Agricultural  Physics  in  the  University 
of  Wisconsin.  There  is  a  Bureau  of  Soils  in  the  National 
Department  of  Agriculture,  the  work  of  which  is  largely  in 
the  field  of  soil  physics.  The  physical  or  mechanical  analysis 
of  soils  is  now  considered  to  be  as  important  as  the  chemical 
analysis.  Some  of  the  physical  aspects  of  farm  soils  are  dis- 
cussed in  our  chapters  ii.,  iii.,  iv.,  v. 

16a.  Ecology  (written  cecology  in  the  dictionaries)  is  the 
science  which  treats  of  the  relationship  of  organisms  (that  is, 
plants  and  animals)  to  each  other  and  to  their  environments. 
It  is  animal  and  vegetable  economy,  or  the  general  external 
phenomena  of  the  living  world.  It  has  to  do  with  modes  and 
habits  of  life,  as  of  struggle  for  existence,  migrations  and 
nesting  of  birds,  distribution  of  animals  and  plants,  influence 
of  climate  on  organisms,  the  way  in  which  any  plant  or  animal 
behaves,  and  the  like.  Darwin's  works  are  rich  in  ecological 
observations. 

\6b.  Environment  is  the  sum  of  conditions  or  surroundings 
or  circumstances  in  which  any  organism  lives.  An  environment 
of  any  plant  is  the  compound  condition  produced  by  soil, 
climate,  altitude,  struggle  for  existence,  and  so  on. 

18a.  It  is  customary  to  consider  agricultural  chemistry  as 
the  fundamental  science  of  agriculture.  Works  on  agricultural 
chemistry  are  often  called  works  on  agriculture.  But  agricul- 
ture has  no  single  fundamental  science.  Its  success,  as  we 
have  seen,  depends  upon  a  union  of  business  methods  and  the 
applications  of  science;  and  this  science,  in  its  turn,  is  a  coordi- 
nation of  many  sciences.  Chemistry  is  only  one  of  the  scvences 
which  contribute  to  a  better  agriculture.  Under  the  inspiration 
of  Davy,  Liebig,  and  their  followers,  agricultural  chemistry  made 
the  first  great  application  of  science  to  agriculture ;  and  upon 
this   foundation   has    grown    the  experiment -station    idea.     It    is 


14  THE    PRESrCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

not  strange,  therefore,  that  this  science  should  be  more  inti- 
mately associated  than  others  with  agricultural  ideas  ;  but  we 
now  understand  that  agriculture  cannot  be  an  exact  or  definite 
science,  and  that  the  retort  and  the  crucible  can  solve  only  a  few 
of  its  many  problems.  In  particular,  we  must  outgrow  the  idea 
that  by  analyzing  soil  and  plant  we  can  determine  what  the  one 
will  produce  and  what  the  other  needs.  Agricultural  chemistry 
is  the  product  of  laboratory  methods.  The  results  of  thes3 
methods  may  not  apply  in  the  field,  because  the  conditions  there 
are  so  different  and  so  variable.  The  soil  is  the  laboratory  in 
which  the  chemical  activities  take  place,  but  conditions  of 
weather  are  ever  modifying  these  activities ;  and  it  is  not  alwaj's 
that  the  soil  and  the  plant  are  in  condition  to  work  together. 

20a.  As  an  illustration  of  the  agricultural  interest  which 
attaches  to  the  surface  geology  of  a  region,  see  Tarr's  "  Geo- 
logical History  of  the  Chautauqua  Grape  Belt,"  Bull.  109  Cor- 
nell Exp.  Sta. 

21a.  Probably  no  less  than  50,000  species  of  plants  (or 
forms  which  have  been  considered  to  be  species)  have  been 
cultivated.  The  greater  number  of  these  are  ornamental  sub- 
jects. Of  orchids  alone,  as  many  as  1,500  species  have  been 
introduced  into  cultivation.  Nicholson's  Illustrated  Dictionary  of 
Gardening  describes  about  40,000  species  of  domesticated  plants. 
Of  plants  grown  for  food,  fiber,  etc.,  De  Candolle  admits  247  spe- 
cies (in  Origin  of  Cultivated  Plants),  but  these  are  only  the  most 
prominent  ones.  Yilmorin  (The  Vegetable  Garden)  describes 
211  species  of  kitchen-garden  vegetables  alone.  Sturtevant 
estimates  (Agricultural  Science,  iii.,  178)  1,076  species  as  having 
been  "recorded  as  cultivated  for  food  use."  Of  some  species, 
the  cultivated  varieties  are  numbered  by  the  thousands,  as  in 
apple,  chrysanthemum,  carnation,  potato.  Of  animals,  more 
than  50  species  are  domesticated,  and  the  breeds  or  varieties 
of  many  of  them  (as  in  cattle)  run  into  the  hundreds. 

21ft.  It  is  commonly  said  that  agriculture  is  itself  a  science, 
but  we  now  see  that  this  is  not  true.  It  has  no  field  of  science 
exclusively  its  own.  Its  purpose  is  the  making  of  a  living  for 
its  practitioner,  not  the  extension  of  knowledge.     The  subject  of 


INTRODUCTION  15 

mathematics  is  numbers,  quantity  and  magnitude;  of  botany, 
plants;  of  ornithology,  birds;  of  entomology,  insects;  of  chem- 
istry, the  composition  of  matter;  of  astronomy,  the  heavens: 
but  agriculture  is  a  mosaic  of  many  sciences,  arts  and  activities. 
Or,  it  may  be  said  to  be  a  composite  of  sciences  and  arts,  much 
as  medicine  and  surgery  are.  But  if  there  is  no  science  of 
agricultui'e  as  distinct  from  other  sciences,  the  prosecution  of 
agriculture  must  be  scientific ;  and  the  fact  that  it  is  a  mosaic 
makes  it  all  the  more  diflBcult  to  follow,  and  enforces  the  im- 
portance of  executive  judgment  and  farm  -  practice  over  mere 
scientific  knowledge. 

22a.  The  province  of  a  text -book  of  agriculture,  in  other 
words,  is  to  deal  (1)  with  the  original  production  of  agricultural 
wealth  rather  than  with  its  manufacture,  transportation  or  sale, 
for  these  latter  enterprises  are  largely  matters  of  personal  cir- 
cumstance and  individuality,  and  (2)  with  those  principles  and 
facts  which  are  common  to  all  agriculture,  or  which  may  be 
considered  to  be   fundamental. 

2'2b.  In  other  words,  we  must  search  for  principles,  not  for 
mere  facts  or  information :  we  shall  seek  to  ask  why  before  we 
ask  how.  Principles  apply  everywhere,  but  facts  and  rules  may 
apply  only  where  they  originate.  Agi-ieulture  is  founded  upon 
laws;  but  there  are  teachers  who  would  have  us  believe  that  it 
is  chiefly  the  overcoming  of  mere  obstacles,  as  insects,  unpro- 
pitious  weather,  and  the  like.  There  are  great  fundamentals 
which  the  learner  must  comprehend  ;  therefore  we  shall  say 
nothing,  in  this  book,  about  the  incidentals,  as  the  kinds  of 
weeds, the  brands  of  fertilizers,  the  breeds  of  animals,  the  varie- 
ties of  flowers. 


Paet  I 
THE     SOIL 


Chapter  I 

THE   CONTENTS    OF    THE   SOIL 

1.   What  the  Soil  Is 

23.  The  earth,  the  atmosphere,  and  the  sun- 
light are  the  sources  of  all  life  and  wealth. 
Atmosphere  and  sunlight  are  practically  beyond 
the  control  of  man,  but  the  surface  of  the  land 
is  amenable  to  treatment  and  amelioration. 

24.  The  soil  is  that  part  of  the  solid  surface 
of  the  earth  in  which  plants  grow.  It  varies  in 
depth  from  less  than  an  inch  to  several  feet. 
The  uppermost  part  of  it  is  usually  darkest 
colored  and  most  fertile,  and  is  the  part  which 
is  generally  understood  as  "the  soil"  in  common 
speech,  whereas  the  under  part  is  called  the 
sub -soil.  When  speaking  of  areas,  we  use  the 
word  land  ;  but  when  speaking  of  the  particular 
agricultural  attributes  of  this  land,  we  may  use 
the  word  soil. 

(16) 


THE    CONTENTS    OF    THE    SOIL  17 

2.  How  Soil  Is  Made 
2a.  The  inorganic  elements 

25.  The  basis  of  soil  is  fragments  of  rock. 
To  this  base  is  added  the  remains  of  plants  and 
animals  (or  organic  matter).  When  in  condition 
to  grow  plants,  it  also  contains  water.  The 
character  of  any  soil,  therefore,  is  primarily 
determined  by  the  kind  of  rock  from  which  it 
has  come,  and  the  amount  of  organic  matter 
and  water  which  it  contains. 

26.  As  the  surface  of  the  earth  cooled,  it 
became  rock -bound.  Wrinkles  and  ridges  ap- 
peared, forming  mountains  and  valleys.  The 
tendency  is  for  the  elevations  to  be  lessened  and 
the  depressions  to  be  filled.  That  is,  the  surface 
of  the  earth  is  being  leveled.  The  chief  agency 
in  this  leveling  process  is  weathering.  The  hills 
and  mountains  are  worn  down  by  alternations  of 
temperature,  by  frost,  ice,  snow,  rain  and  wind. 
They  are  worn  away  by  the  loss  of  small  par- 
ticles :  these  particles,  when  gathered  on  the 
hillsides  or  deposited  on  lower  levels,  form  soil. 

27.  The  weathering  agencies  which  "reduce 
the  mountains  operate  also  on  level  areas ; 
but  since  the  soil  then  remains  where  it  is 
formed,  and  thereby  affords  a  protection  to 
the  underlying  rock,  the   reduction  of    the   rock 


18  THE     PRINCIPLES     OF     AGRICULTURE 

usually   proceeds   more   slowly  than    on   inclined 
surfaces. 

28.  There  are,  then,  two  sets  of  forces  con- 
cerned in  the  original  formation  of  soils, —  the 
disintegi'ation  or  wearing  away  of  the  rock,  and 
the  transfer  or  moving  of  the  particles  to  other 
places. 

2b.    The   organic   elements   and   agents 

29.  Plants  are  important  agents  in  the  forma- 
tion of  soil.  Their  action  is  of  two  kinds  :  the 
roots  corrode  and  break  up  the  surfaces  of  rock 
and  particles  of  soil,  and  the  plant  finally 
decays  and   adds  some  of   its  tissue  to  the  soil. 

30.  In  the  disintegration  of  rock  and  the 
fining  of  soil,  the  root  acts  in  two  ways  :  it  ex- 
erts a  mechanical  force  or  pressure  as  it  gi'ows, 
cracking  and  cleaning  the  rock ;  and  it  has  a 
chemical  action  in  dissolving  out  certain  ma- 
terials, and  thereby  consuming  and  weakening 
the   rock. 

31.  Animals  contribute  to  the  formation  of 
soil  by  theu'  excrement  and  the  decay  of  their 
carcasses.  Burrowing  and  digging  animals  also 
expose  rocks  and  soils  to  weathering,  and  con- 
tribute to  the  transportation  of  the  particles. 
Some  animals  are  even  more  directly  concerned 
in    soil -making.     Of    these,    the    chief    are    the 


THE    CONTENTS    OF    THE    SOIL  19 

various  kinds  of  earthworms,  one  of  which 
is  the  common  angleworm.  These  animals  eat 
earth,  which,  when  excreted,  is  more  or  less 
mixed  with  organic  matter,  and  the  mineral 
particles  are  ground  and  modified.  It  is  now 
considered  that  in  the  tenacious  soils  in  which 
these  animals  work,  the  earthworms  have  been 
very  important  agents  in  fitting  the  earth  for 
the  growing  of  plants,  and  consequently  for 
agriculture. 

32.  While  the  basis  of  most  soils  is  dis- 
integrated rock,  there  are  some  soils  which 
are  essentially  organic  in  origin.  These  are 
formed  by  the  accumulation  of  vegetable  mat- 
ter, often  aided  by  the  incorporation  of  animal 
remains.  In  the  tropics,  such  soils  are  often 
formed  on  shores  and  in  lagoons  by  the  exten- 
sion of  the  trunk -like  roots  of  mangroves 
and  other  trees.  In  the  network  of  roots,  leaves 
and  sea-wrack  are  caught,  and  mold  is  formed. 
Water  plants  (as  marsh  grasses  and  eel-grass) 
are  sometimes  so  abundant  on  sea  margins  as 
to  eventually  form  solid  land.  On  the  edges  of 
lakes  and  ponds,  the  accumulation  of  water-lily 
rhizomes  and  other  growths  often  affords  a  foot- 
hold for  sedges  and  other  semi -aquatic  plants  ; 
and  the  combined  growth  invades  the  lake  and 
often  fills  it.  Portions  of  this  decaying  and 
tangled  mass  are  sometimes  torn  away  by  wind 


20  THE     PRINCIPLES     OF    AGRICULTURE 

or  wave,  and  become  floating  islands.  Such 
islands  are  often  several  acres  in  extent.  In 
high  latitudes,  where  the  summer's  growth  does 
not  decay  quickly,  one  season's  growth  is  some- 
times added  above  another  until  a  deep  organic 
soil  is  formed.  This  is  especially  noticeable  in 
the  gradual  increase  in  height  of  s]:»hagnum 
swamps.  Peat  bogs  are  organic  lands,  and  they 
fill  the  beds  of  former  lakes  or  swamps.  Of 
course,  all  these  organic  soils  contain  mineral 
matter,  but  it  is  mostly  such  as  comes  from  the 
decay  of  the  j^lants  themselves.  It  was  origi- 
nally obtained  from  the  earth,  but  is  used  over 
and  over  again ;  and  each  year  a  little  new 
material  may  be  added  by  such  plants  as  reach 
into  the  hard  land  below,  and  by  that  which 
blows    into   the    area   in   dust. 

33.  Decaying  organic  matter  forms  mold  or 
humus.  The  mineral  elements  may  be  said  to 
give  ''body"  to  the  soil,  but  the  humus  is  what 
gives  it  "life"  or  "heart."  Humus  makes  soils 
dark -colored  and  mellow.  Humus  not  only  adds 
plant-food  to  the  soil,  but  improves  the  physical 
condition  of  the  soil  and  makes  it  congenial  for 
plants.  It  augments  the  water -holding  capacity 
of  the  soil,  modifies  the  extremes  of  temperature, 
facilitates  the  entrance  of  air,  and  accelerates 
many  chemical  activities.  It  is  the  chief  agent 
in  the  formation  of   loam :  —  a    sandy  loam  is  a 


TETE    CONTEXTS    OF    THE    SOIL  21 

friable  soil  rich  iu  vegetable  matter,  the  original 
basis  of  which  is  saud  ;  a  clay  loam  is  one  simi- 
larly ameliorated,  the  basis  of  which  is  clay. 
"Worn -out"  lands  usually  suffer  more  from 
lack  of  humus  than  from  lack  of  actual  plant- 
food,  and  this  explains  why  the  application  of 
stable -manure  is  so  efficacious. 

34.  There  are  three  general  ways  in  which 
humus  is  obtained  in  farm-practice  :  (1)  By 
means  of  the  vegetable  matter  which  is  left  on 
or  in  the  ground  after  the  crop  is  removed  (as 
roots,  stubble,  sod,  garden  refuse) ;  (2)  by 
means  of  crops  grown  and  plowed  under  for 
that  particular  purpose  (gi'een-manui-ing) ;  (3)  by 
means  of  direct  applications  to  the  land  (as  com- 
post and  stable- manm-e).  The  deeper  and  more 
extensive  the  root -system  of  any  plant,  the 
gi'eater,  in  general,  is  .its  value  as  an  ameliorator 
of  soil,  both  because  it  itself  exerts  a  more  wide- 
spread influence  (30),  and  because  when  it  de- 
cays it  extends  the  ameliorating  effects  of  humus 
to  greater  depths. 

35.  Aside  from  these  varied  component  ele- 
ments, fertile  soil  is  inhabited  by  countless  num- 
bers of  microscopic  organisms,  which  are  peculiar 
to  it,  and  without  which  its  various  chemical 
activities  can  not  proceed.  These  germs  con- 
tribute to  the  breaking  down  of  the  soil  particles 
and  to  the  decay  of   the  organic  materials,  and 


22  THE    PRDfCIPLES    OP    AGRICULTURE 

in  doing  so,  aid  in  the  formation  of  plant -foods. 
The  soil,  therefore,  is  not  merely  an  inert  mass, 
operated  upon  only  by  physical  and  chemical 
forces,  but  it  is  a  realm  of  intense  life  ;  and  the 
discovery  of  this  fact  has  radically  modified  our 
conception  of  the  soil  and  the  means  of  treating 
it.  Enriching  the  land  is  no  longer  the  adding 
of  mere  plant-food :  it  is  also  making  the  soil 
congenial  to  the  multiplication  and  well-being 
of  micro-organisms. 

2e.   TraMsportaHim  of  soils 

36.  The  soU  is  never  at  rest.  The  particles 
move  upon  each  other,  through  the  action  of 
water,  heat  and  cold,  and  other  agencies.  The 
particles,  whether  of  inorganic  or  organic  origin, 
are  also  ever  changing  in  shape  and  composition. 
They  wear  away  and  crumble  under  the  action 
of  weather,  water,  organic  acids  of  the  humus, 
and  the  roots  of  plants.  No  particle  of  soil  is 
now  in  its  original  place.  These  changes  are 
most  rapid  in  tilled  lands,  because  the  soil  is 
more  exposed  to  weather  through  the  tillage 
and  the  aerating  effect  of  deep-rooted  plants 
(as  clover) ;  and  the  stirring  or  tilling  itself 
wears  the  soil  particles.  Even  stones  and  peh»bles 
wear  away  (26a) ;  and  the  materials  which  they 
lose  usually  become  productive  elements  of   the 


THE    CONTENTS    OF    THE    SOIL  23 

soil.  Some  lands  have  very  porous  or  "rotten" 
stones,  and  these  pass  quickly  into  soil.  Stones 
are  no  doubt  a  useful  reserve  force  in  farm 
lands,  giving  up  their  fertility  very  gradually, 
and  thereby  saving  some  of  the  wastefulness  of 
careless  husbandry.  The  general  tendency,  in 
nature,  is  for  soils  to  become  finer,  more  homo- 
geneous, and  better  for  the  growth  of  plants. 

37.  But  there  are  greater  movements  than 
these.  Soil  is  often  transported  long  distances, 
chiefly  by  means  of  three  agents:  moving  water, 
ice  and  snow,  wind.  Transported  soils  are  apt 
to  be  very  unlike  the  underlying  rock  (or  origi- 
nal surface),  and  they  are  often  very  hetero- 
geneous or  conglomerate  in  character.  Soils 
which  remain  where  they  are  formed  (27) 
naturally  partake  of  the  nature  of  the  bed- 
rock, and  are  generally  more  homogeneous  than 
transported  soils,  as,  for  example,  the  limestone 
soils  which   overlie  great  deposits   of  lime -rock. 

38.  Moving  water  always  moves  land.  The 
beating  of  waves  wears  away  rocks  and  stones 
and  breaks  up  debris,  and  deposits  the  mass  on 
or  near  the  shore.  Streams  carry  soils  long 
distances.  The  particles  may  be  in  a  state  of 
suspension  in  the  water,  and  be  precipitated  in 
the  quieter  parts  of  the  stream  or  in  bayous  or 
lagoons,  or  they  may  be  driven  along  the  bed 
of   the  stream  by  the  force  of   the  current,  and 


24  TKE     PRDCCIPLES     OF    AGBICULXrEE 

be  deposited  wherever  obstructions  occur,  or  be 
discharged  on  the  delta  at  the  mouth.  The 
deposition  of  sediment  in  times  of  overflow 
adds  new  vigor  to  the  submerged  lands.  The 
historic  example  of  this  is  the  Nile  valley, 
but  all  bottom  lands  which  are  subjected  to 
periodical  overflows  exhibit  the  same  result. 
Alluvial  lands  are  formed  from  the  deposition 
of   the  sediment  of   water. 

39.  In  mountainous  regions,  snow  and  ice 
carry  away  great  quantities  of  rock  and  soil. 
The  most  powerful  transporters  of  soil  are  gla- 
ciers, or  moving  masses  of  ice.  Glaciers  loosen 
the  rock  and  then  grind  and  transport  it.  In 
the  glacial  epoch,  in  which  much  of  the  north- 
em  part  of  the  northern  hemisphere  was  cov- 
ered with  gigantic  ice- sheets  slowly  moving  to 
the  southward,  enormous  quantities  of  rock  and 
earth  were  transported,  and  deposited  wherever 
the  ice  melted.  In  eastern  North  America,  the 
ice-front  advanced  to  the  latitude  of  the  Ohio 
river,  and  the  boulder -strewn  fields  and  varied 
soils  to  the  northward  of  this  latitude  are  the 
legacy  which  the  epoch  left  to  the  farmer. 

40.  In  all  areas  which  are  subjected  to 
periods  of  drought,  the  wind  transports  soils  in 
the  form  of  dust,  often  in  great  amounts  and 
for  long  distances.  In  some  parts  of  the  world, 
9o  much  earth  is  carried  by  violent  winds  that 


h.  "^ 


THE    CONTENTS    OF    THE    SOIL  25 

these  winds  are  known  as  "sand-storms."  Most 
shores,  particularly  if  sandy,  are  much  modified 
by  the  action  of  wind.  But  the  wind  has  an 
influence  upon  soils  even  in  the  most  protected 
and  equable  regions.  The  atmosphere  contains 
dust,  much  of  which  is  valuable  plant -food. 
This  dust  is  transported  by  winds,  and  it  finally 
settles  or  is  carried  down  by  snow  and  rain. 
Although  the  amount  of  dust  which  is  deposited 
in  any  given  time  may  be  slight,  it  is  neverthe- 
less continuous,  and  has  an  important  effect 
upon   the    soil. 

3.   The  Besources  of  the  Soil 

41.  The  soil  affords  a  root -hold  for  plants, — 
a  place  in  which  they  can  grow.  It  also  supplies 
the  environmental  conditions  which  roots  need, — 
protection,  moisture,  air,  agreeable  temperature, 
and  other  congenial  surroundings. 

42.  The  soil  is  also  a  store -house  of  plant- 
food.  Roberts  calculates,  from  many  analyses, 
that  in  average  agricultural  lands  the  surface 
eight  inches  of  soil  on  each  acre  contains  over 
3,000  pounds  of  nitrogen,  nearly  4,000  pounds 
of  phosphoric  acid,  and  over  17,000  pounds  of 
potash.  These  three  elements  are  the  ones  which 
the  farmer  must  chiefly  consider  in  maintaining 
or  augmenting  the  productive  power  of  the  land  ; 


26  THE    PRINCIPLES     OF    AGRICULTURE 

j-et  the  figures  "reveal  the  fact  that  even  the 
poorer  soils  have  an  abundance  of  plant -food 
for  several  crops,  while  the  richer  soils  in 
some  cases  have  sufficient  for  two  hundred  to 
three  hundred  crops  of  wheat  or  maize."'  Yet 
these  calculations  are  made  from  only  the 
upper  eight   inches   of   soil. 

43.  Happily,  this  food  is  not  all  directly 
available  or  useful  to  plants  (being  locked  up 
in  insoluble  combinations),  else  it  would  have 
been  exhausted  by  the  first  generations  of 
farmers.  It  is  gi-adually  unlocked  by  weather, 
micro-organisms,  and  the  roots  of  plants  ;  and 
the  better  the  tillage,  the  more  rapid  is  its 
utilization.  Plants  differ  in  the  power  to  unlock 
or  make  use  of  the  fertility  of  the  soil. 

44.  Nature  maintains  this  store  of  fertility 
by  returning  her  crops  to  the  soil.  Every 
tree  of  the  forest  finally  crumbles  into  earth. 
She  uses  the  materials,  then  gives  them  back 
in  a  refined  and  improved  condition  for  other 
plants  to  use.     She  repays,  and  with  interest. 

45.  Man  removes  the  crops.  He  sends  them 
to  market  in  one  form  or  another,  and  the 
materials  are  finally  lost  in  sewage  and  the 
sea.  He  sells  the  productive  power  of  his 
land  ;  yet  it  does  not  follow  that  he  impoverishes 
his  soil  in  proportion  to  the  plant -food  which  he 
sells.     Given   the    composition    of    any   soil    and 


THE     CONTENTS     OF    THE     SOIL  27 

of  the  crops  which  it  is  to  produce,  it  is  easy  to 
calculate  the  time  when  the  soil  will  have  lost 
its  power ;  but  it  must  be  remembered  that  the 
materials  which  the  plant  removes  are  consumed, 
and  that  the  volume  of  the  soil  is  reduced  by 
that  amount.  The  result  is,  therefore,  that  the 
deeper  parts  of  the  soil  are  broiight  into  requi- 
sition as  fast  as  the  upper  parts  are  consumed  ; 
and  these  depths  will  last  as  long  as  the  earth 
lasts. 

46.  Of  some  materials,  however,  the  plant 
uses  more  freely  than  of  others,  in  proportion  to 
their  abundance  in  the  soil.  Therefore  the  soil 
may  finally  lose  its  productivity,  although  it  is 
doubtful  if  it  can  ever  be  completely  exhausted 
of  plant^food. 

•i".  Again,  the  profit  in  agriculture  often  lies 
in  making  the  soil  produce  more  abundantly 
than  it  is  of  itself  able  to  do.  That  is,  even 
after  tillage  and  every  other  care  have  forced 
the  soil  to  respond  to  its  full  ability,  it  may 
pay  the  farmer  to  buy  plant -food  in  bags  in  the 
same  way  that  it  may  pay  him  to  buy  gi'ound 
feed  when  fattening  sheep.  Whether  it  is  ad- 
visable to  buy  this  plant -food  is  a  matter  of 
business  judgment  which  every  farmer  must 
determine  for  himself,  after  having  considered 
the  three  fundamental  factors  in  the  problem : 
the    cost    of   the    plant-food    (or    fertilizer),    the 


28  THE    PRINCIPLES    OP    AGRICULTURE 

probable  effect  of  this  exti^a  food  upon  the  crop, 
and  the  commercial  value  of  the  extra  crop.  In 
general,  it  should  be  considered  that  in  mixed 
husbandry  the  fertility  of  the  land  must  be 
maintained  by  means  of  farm -practice  (that  is, 
hj  good  farming),  and  that  plant -food  should 
be  bought  only  for  the  purpose  of  producing  the 
extra  product. 

48.  We  are  now  able  to  comprehend  that 
the  soil  is  a  compound  of  numberless  inorganic 
and  organic  materials,  a  realm  of  complex 
physical  and  chemical  forces,  and  the  scene  of 
an  intricate  round  of  life.  "We  must  no  longer 
think  of  it  as  mere  du't.  Moreover,  we  are  only 
beginning  to  imderstand  it;  and  if  the  very  soil 
is  unknown  to  us,  how  complicated  must  be  the 
great  structure  of  agriculture  which  is  reared 
upon   it ! 

SrGGJb'STTOXS    OX   CHAPTER   I 

25a.  The  word  organic  refers  to  animals  and  plants  or  their 
products  and  remains  ;  that  is,  to  things  "which  live  and  have 
organs.  Organic  compounds,  in  ehemistrv,  are  those  which 
have  been  built  up  or  produced  by  the  action  of  a  plant  or 
animal.  Modern  usage,  however,  defines  organic  compounds  as 
those  which  contain  carbon.  Starch,  sugar,  woody  fiber,  are 
examples. 

25b.  Inorganic  compounds  are  such  as  are  not  produced  by 
living  organisms,  as  all  the  mineral  compounds.  They  are 
found  in  the  earth  and  air.  Salt,  potash,  iron  and  gold, 
lime,  are    examples. 


THE     CONTENTS     OF     THE     SOIL 


29 


25c.  The  organic  matter  in  soils — the  plant  and  animal 
remains — is  removed  by  burning.  Let  the  pupil  secure  a  cupful 
of  wet  soil  and  carefully  weigh  it  on  delicate  scales.  Then  let 
it  dry  in  the  sun,  and  weigh  again  ;   the  difference  in  weight  is 


/i 


< 


Fig.  1. 


showing  the  wearing  away  of  mouutaiu  peats  ami  the  formation  of 
soil  at  the  base. 


due  to  the  loss  or  evaporation  of  water.  Now  place  it  in  a 
moderately  warm  oven  or  on  a  stove,  and  after  a  few  minutes 
weigh  again  ;  more  of  the  water  will  now  have  passed  off.  Now 
thoroughly  burn  or  bake  it,  and  weigh  ;  the  loss  is  now  mostly 
due  to  the  burning  of  the  organic  matter,  and  part  of  this 
matter  has  passed  off  as  gas.  If  there  is  no  perceptible  loss 
from  the  burning,  it  is  evidence  that  the  sample  contained  little 
organic  matter.  Note  the  difference  in  results  between  clay  and 
muck.  The  pupil  may  also  be  interested  to  try  to  grow  plants 
in  the  baked  soil. 


30  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTrRE 

26a.  The  wearing  away  of  rock  bv  the  weather  may  be  ob- 
served wherever  stones  are  exposed.  Even  granite  and  marble 
monuments  lose  their  polish  and  luster  in  a  few  years.  The 
sharp  and  angular  projections  disappear  from  the  ledges  and 
broken  stones  of  railway  cuts  and  quarries.  The  pupil  should 
look  for  the  wear  on  any  rocks  with  which  he  may  be  familiar. 
All  stones  tend  to  grow  smaller.  On  a  large  scale,  the  wasting 
of  rocks  may  be  seen  in  the  debris  at  the  base  of  precipices  and 
mountain  peaks  (Fig.  1),  or  wherever  steep  walls  of  rock  are 
exposed.  The  palisades  of  the  Hudson,  and  other  precipitous 
river  and  lake  blufis,  show  this  action  well.  Mountains  tend  to 
become  rounded  in  the  long  processes  of  time,  although  some 
rocks  are  of  such  structure  that  they  hold  their  pointed  shai>e 
until  worn  almost  completely  away.  In  &eikie's  "Geological 
Sketches,"  Essay  No.  8,  the  reader  will  find  an  interesting 
account  of  weathering  as  illustrated  by  the  decay  of  tombstones. 

26h.  The  extent  of  this  weathering  and  denuding  process  in 
the  formation  of  soils  may  be  graphically  illustrated  by  the  pres- 
ent conformation  of  the  A2ps  and  adjacent  parts  of  Europe. 
Lubbock  writes  that  "much  of  the  deposits  which  occupy  the 
valleys  of  the  Khine,  Po,  Rhone,  Beuss,  Inn.  and  Danutte — the 
alluvium  which  forms  the  plains  of  Lombardy,  of  Germany,  of 
Belgium,  Holland,  and  of  southeast  France — consists  of  materials 
washed  down  from  the  Swiss  mountains."  The  amount  of  mate- 
rial which  has  been  removed  from  the  Alps  is  probably  "almost 
as  great  as  that  which  still  remains."  So  great  has  been  the 
denudation  that  in  certain  cases  "what  is  now  the  top  of  the 
mountain  was  once  the  bottom  of  a  valley."  The  Matterhom,  the 
boldest  and  one  of  the  highest  of  the  Alps,  "is  obviously  a  rem- 
nant of  an  ancient  ridge,"  and  the  "present  configuration  of  the 
surface  [of  Switzerland]  is  indeed  mainly  the  result  of  denuda- 
tion. *  *  It  is  certain  that  not  a  fragment  of  the  original  sur- 
face is  still  in  existence,  though  it  must  not  be  inferred  that  the 
mountains  were  at  any  time  so  much  higher,  as  elevation  and 
denudation  went  on  together."  There  is  even  evidence  to  show 
that  an  earlier  range  of  mountains  occupied  the  site  of  the 
present    Alps,   and   that   these  old   mountains  were  removed  or 


THE    CONTENTS    OF    THE    SOIL 


31 


worn   away  by  denudation. — See    Sir   John   Lubbock,   ^^  Scenery    9f 
Switzerland,"  Chaps.  Hi.  and  iv. 

29a.  Even  hard  surfaces  of  rock  often  support  lichens, 
mosses,  and  other  humble  plants.  "The  plant  is  co-partner 
with  the  weather  in  the  building  of  the  primal  soils.  The  lichen 
spreads  its  thin  substance  over  the  rock,  sending  its  fibers  into 
the  crevices  and  filling  the  chinks, 
as  they  enlarge,  with  the  decay 
of  its  own  structure  ;  and  finally 
the  rock  is  fit  for  the  moss  or 
fern  or  creeping  vine,  each  new- 
comer leaving  its  impress  by  which 
some  later  newcomer  may  profit. 
Finally  the  rock  is  disintegrated 
and  comminuted,  and  is  ready  to 
be  still  further  elaborated  by  corn 
and  ragweed.  Nature  intends  to 
leave  no  vacant  or  bare  places. 
She  providently  covers  the  rail- 
way embankment  with  quack-grass 
or  willows,  and  she  scatters  daisies 
in  the  old  meadows  where  the  land 
has  grown  sick  and  tired  of  grass." 
— Principles  of  Fruit- Growing,  176. 

30rt.  It  is  interesting  to  consider  the  general  reasons  for  the 
evolution  of  the  root.  Plants  were  at  first  aquatic,  and  probably 
absorbed  food  from  the  water  on  all  their  surfaces.  They  may 
not  have  been  attached  to  the  earth.  As  they  were  driven  into 
a  more  or  less  terrestrial  life  by  the  receding  of  the  waters  and 
as  a  result  of  the  struggle  for  existence,  they  developed  parts 
which  penetrated  the  earth.  These  parts  were  probably  only 
hold-fasts  at  first,  as  the  roots  of  many  seaweeds  are  at  the  pres- 
ent time.  But  as  it  became  less  and  less  possible  for  the  general 
surface  of  the  plant  to  absorb  food,  the  hold-fast  gradually  be- 
came a  food -gathering  or  feeding  member. — See  Survival  of  the 
Unlike,  pp.  41-43. 

306.    If  the  pupil  has  access  to  ledges  of  rock  on  which  trees 


Fig.  2.    The  halves  of  a  roek  forced 
apart  by  the  growth  of  a  tree. 


32 


THE     PRINCIPLES     OF     AGRICULTURE 


are  growing,  he  will  readily  be  able  to  satisfy  himself  that  roots 
force  open  cracks  and  thereby  split  and  sever  the  stone.  Fig.  2 
is  an  example,  showing  how  a  black  cherry  tree,  gaining  a 
foothold  in  a  crevice,  has  gradually  forced  the  parts  of  the  rock 


Fig.  3.    Lichens  have  obtained  a  foothold. 


asunder.  This  particular  example  is  the  "half-way  stone"  be- 
tween the  Michigan  Agricultural  College  and  the  city  of  Lansing. 
Fig.  3  shows  a  stone  upon  which  lichens  have  obtained  a  foot- 
hold. Any  person  who  has  worked  much  in  a  garden  will  have 
seen  how  roots  often  surround  a  bone,  taking  their  food  from  its 
surface  and  insinuating  themselves  into  the  cracks.  Boots  will 
corrode  or  eat  out  the  surface  of  marble.  The  grinding  up  of  stones 
is  well  illustrated  on  any  lake  shore,  where  the  pebbles  represent 
what  is  left  at  the  present  time  of  the  etones  and  fragments.  The 
rolling  stones  in  brooks  represent  a  similar  action. 

30c.  By  chemical  action  is  meant  the  change  from  which  results 
a  new  chemical  combination.  It  produces  a  rearrangement  of 
molecules.    For  example,  the  change  which  takes  place  when,  by 


THE    CONTENTS    OP    THE    SOIL 


33 


uniting  lime  and  sulfuric  acid,  sulfate  of  lime  or  gypsum  is  pro- 
duced, is  chemical  action. 

31«.  Knowledge  of  the  work  of  the  earthworm  in  building 
soils  dates  practically  from  the  issue  of  Darwin's  remarkable 
book,  "The  Formation  of  Vegetable  Mould,  through  the  Action  of 
Worms,"  which  the  reader  should  consult  for  particulars.  The 
subject  is  also  considered  briefly  in  King's  "Soil,"  Chap,  i.,  which 
also  discusses  the  general  means  of  soil -building. 

32a.  As  an  example  of  the  formation  of  organic  soils  in  the 
tropics,  read  accounts  of  the  mangrove.     Its  mode  of  propagation 


Fig.  4.    A  delta  in  an  orchard. 


is  explained,  with  illustrations,  in  Bailey's  "Lessons  with  Plants," 
pp.  371-374  ;  the  tree  is  also  described  in  Chap.  v.  of  Gaye's 
"Great  World's  Farm."  As  an  example  of  a  formation  of  a  peat 
bog  by  the  growth  of  sphagnum,  read  Ganong  "On  Raised  Peat- 
bogs in  New  Brunswick,"  Botanical  Gazette,  pp.  123-12G,  May, 
1891.  Sphagnum  is  moss  which  grows  in  cold  bogs.  Nurserymen 
and  florists  use  it  in  the  packing  of  plants. 


34 


THE     PKINCIPLES     OF     AGRICULTURE 


33a.  When  spelled  humus,  the  word  is  a  noun;  when  spelled 
humous,  it  is  an  adjective,  as  "humous  soils." 

34:0.  Compost  is  decayed  or  decaying  organic  matter  which  it 
is  intended  shall  be  applied  to  the  land.  It  is  usually  obtained 
by  placing  leaves,  sod,  manure  or  litter  in  a  low  flat-topped  (so 
that  it  will  catch  the  rain)  pile,  and  "turning  it,"  or  forking  it 


Fig.  5.    A  compost  pile. 


over,  every  few  weeks,  to  prevent  heating  and  to  hasten  uniform 
decomposition  (Fig.  5).  When  the  mass  has  passed  into  the 
condition  of  humus  or  mold  (or  become  fine  and  soil-like),  it  is 
applied  to  the  land.  Composting  is  a  most  useful  means  of 
utilizing  leaves,  garden  refuse,  and  other  materials  which  are 
too  coarse  or  "raw"  to  be  applied  directly  to  the  land. 

35a.  "The  term  micro-organism  is  a  general  one,  which 
includes  any  very  minute,  microscopic  form  of  life.  More  strictly 
speaking,  the  word  has  come  to  apply  especially  to  certain  forms 
of  plant  life  which  are  too  minute  to  be  seen  individually  by  the 
naked  eye,  and  which  hence  require  for  their  study  the  higher 
powers   of   the  microscope." — Fred'k   D.   Chester,  Bull.  xL,  Del. 


THE     CONTENTS    OF    THE     SOIL  35 

Exp.  Sta.  The  terms  germ,  microhe,  bacterium  (plural  bacteria), 
are  popularly  used  in  the  same  sense  as  micro-organism.  These 
beings  are  usually  unicellular  (each  one  consisting  of  only  a 
single  cell).  They  are  generally  classified  with  plants.  The  role 
of  micro-organisms  in  rendering  soil  elements  available  to  plants 
is  very  complex  and  not  yet  well  understood.  A  general  dis- 
cussion of  these  organisms  will  be  found  in  Lipman's  "  Bacteria 
in  Rf^lation  to  Country  Life."  The  relation  to  germs  in  nitrification 
is  briefly  discussed  in  King's  "Soil,"  pp.  125-134,  and  Roberts' 
"Fertility,"  244-248.     Fig.  6  illustrates  one  of  the  ^    ^^^ 

common  bacteria,  very    much    magnified.       This  ^^  ^30<^ 

species  {Bacillus  ubiquitus)  is  abundant  in  water.      ®^  ^      ^3 
air,  and  decaying  substances.  ^         ^"^^^ 

3Srt.  Obsei-ve  the  deposits  of  sand  in  the  quiet  ^> 

side  (usually  the  concave  side)  of  streams,  and  Fig.  6.  Mkro-or- 
also  the  delta  where  a  rapid  rill  flows  into  a  slow  S"i"s™s,  greatly 
one.  "When  the  rill  flows  into  a  rapid  stream, 
the  larger  current  carries  away  the  deposit  so  that  it  may  not  be 
seen.  Recall  how  sand-bars  form  again  and  again  in  lakes,  and 
how  streams  must  be  frequently  dredged  to  keep  the  channel 
open.  The  slower  the  stream  the  more  quickly  does  it  drop  its 
sediment  ;  and  the  more  winding,  also,  is  its  course,  lying  in  the 
bed  of  its  own  deposits.     (See  Fig.  4.) 

38fe.  Dip  a  glass  of  water  from  a  roily  stream,  and  observe 
the  earth  which  settles  to  the  bottom. 

39a.  Glaciers  are  still  abundant  in  alpine  and  arctic  regions. 
It  was  from  the  study  of  glaciers  in  the  Alps  that  Agassiz  con- 
ceived the  hypothesis  that  large  parts  of  the  earth  had  once 
been  subjected  to  glacial  action.  A  good  popular  discussion  of 
glaciers  and  their  action  may  be  found  in  Chap.  xvii.  of  Tarr's 
"Elementary  Physical  Geography."  Delightful  readings  may  also 
be  made  from  Agassiz's  "Geological  Sketches." 

40a.  Let  the  pupil  catch  a  few  rain  drops  on  a  perfectly  clean 
and  clear  pane  of  glass,  and  observe  if  any  sediment  is  left  when 
the  drops  have  evaporated.  Is  there  any  difference  in  the  amount 
of  dust  brought  down  after  a  "dry  spell"  and  after  a  period  of 
rainy  weather,  or  at  the  beginning  and  end  of  a  shower  f     The 


36  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

pupil  may  now  be  able  to  explain  why  the  windows  get  dirty  after 
a  rain  ;  and  he  will  be  interested  in  the  streaks  on  the  cornices 
of  buildings  and  on  exposed  statuary.  He  may  have  heard  that 
even  sailing  ships  get  dusty  when  at  sea. 

42o.  See  Roberts'  "Fertility  of  the  Land,"  p.  16.  Read  all 
of  Chapter  i.  The  food  which  is  not  available,  or  not  in  condi- 
tion to  be  used  by  the  plant,  but  which  may  become  available 
through  good  tillage  or  otherwise,  is  called  potential  plant-food. 

43ff.  The  soil  is  not  a  simple  reservoir  of  plant-food  in  the 
condition  of  salt  or  sugar,  ready  to  be  dissolved  in  water  and 
immediately  taken  up  by  roots.  The  soil  is  plant-food  ;  but 
most  of  it  must  be  changed  in  composition  before  it  is  available 
to  plants  ;  and  the  elements  are  not  present  in  the  proportions 
which  plants  require,  so  that  much  of  the  soil  is  in  excess  of  the 
needs  of  plants  and  can  never  be  used  as  food. 

48a.  For  supplementary  reading  on  the  formation  of  soils. 
Chapter  i.  of  King's  "Soil"  should  be  consulted.  Most  text-books 
of  geology  also  treat  the  subject  to  some  extent.  Shaler's  article 
on  soil,  in  12th  Annual  Report  of  the  U.  S.  Geological  Survey 
(pp.  319-345),  is  excellent.  A  discussion  of  weathering  may  be 
found  in  Chapter  vi.  of  Tarr's  "Elementary  Geology;"  and  other 
references  arecontaimed  in  Chapters  xiii.and  xxi.of  his  "Elemen- 
tary Physical  Geography."  Stockbridge's  "Rocks  and  Soils" 
(1895)  has  special  reference  to  agriculture.  A  readable  account 
of  the  formation  of  soil  may  be  found  in  Chapters  iii.,  iv.  and  v., 
Gaye's  "Great  Word's  Farm."  Merrill's  "Rocks,  Rock-Weather- 
ing and  Soils"  (1897)  is  a  full  scientific  discussion  of  the  subject. 
Consult  Hilgard's  "Soils,"  and  the  text  by  Lyon  and  Fippin;  also 
the  part  on  soils  in  Vol.  I,  Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture. 


Chapter   II 
THE  TEXTURE  AND  STRUCTURE  OF  THE  SOIL 

1.     What   Is   Meant    by    Texture 

•49.  We  have  seen  that  the  offices  of  the  soil 
are  of  two  general  kinds, — it  affords  a  physical 
medium  in  which  the  plant  can  grow  (41),  and 
it  supplies  materials  that  the  plant  uses  in 
the  building  of  its  tissues  (42).  It  cannot  be 
said  that  one  of  these  offices  is  more  important 
than  the  other,  since  both  are  essential;  but 
attention  has  been  so  long  fixed  upon  the  mere 
content  of  soils  that  it  is  important  to  empha- 
size the  physical  attributes.  Crops  cannot  grow 
on  a  rock,  no  matter  how  much  plant-food  it 
may  contain.  The  passing  of  rock  into  soil 
is  a  matter  of  change  in  texture  and  structure 
more  than  in  plant-food.  Texture  refers  to  the 
size  of  the  particles  ;  structure  to  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  particles. 

50.  The  physical  state  of  the  soil  may  be 
spoken  of  as  its  structure,  much  as  we  speak  of 
the  structure  of  a  house  of  brick  or  stone.  The 
common  adjectives  that  are  applied  to  the  condi- 
tion  of   agricultural    soils   are  descriptions  of  its 

(37) 


38  THE     PRINCIPLES     OP     AGRICULTURE 

structure:  as,  mellow,  hard,  loose,  compact,  open, 
porous,  shallow,  deep,  leachy,  retentive,  lumpy, 
cloddy,  fine  in  good   tilth. 

51.  Texture  and  structure  must  not  be  con- 
founded with  the  physical  forces  or  operations  in 
the  soil,  as  the  fluctuations  of  temperature,  move- 
ments of  water,  circulation  of  air.  They  refer  to 
condition  or  state,  and  are  passive,  not  to  forces 
or  movements,  which  are  active;  but  it  is  upon 
this  passive  condition  that  the  operation  of  both 
physical  and  chemical  forces  chiefly  depends. 

2.   Why  Good  Texture  and  Structure  are  Important 

52.  A  finely  divided,  mellow,  friable  soil  is 
more  productive  than  a  hard  and  lumpy  one  of 
the  same  chemical  composition,  because:  It 
holds  and  retains  more  moistm-e;  holds  more 
air;  promotes  nitrification:  hastens  the  decom- 
position of  the  mineral  elements;  has  less  varia- 
ble extremes  of  temperature;  allows  a  better 
root-hold  to  the  plant;  presents  greater  surface 
to  the  roots.  In  all  these  ways,  and  others,  the 
mellowness  of  the  soil  renders  the  plant-food 
more  available,  and  affords  a  congenial  and 
comfortable  place  in  which  the  plant  may  gi'ow. 

53.  Good  structure  (as  understood  by  the  far- 
mer) not  only  facilitates  and  hastens  the  physi- 
cal   and   chemical   activities,  but  it  also  presents 


THE    TEXTURE    OP    THE    SOIL  39 

a  greater  feeding -surface  to  roots,  because  the 
particles  of  earth  are  very  small  (52).  Roots 
feed  ou  the  surfaces  of  hard  particles  of  earth, 
and  the  feeding- area  is  therefore  increased  in 
proportion  to  the  increase  in  the  surface  area 
of  the  particles.  Dividing  a  cube  into  two 
equal  parts  increases  its  surface  area  by  one- 
third.  (Dividing  a  cube  adds  two  sides  or 
surfaces.)  Fining  the  soil  may  therefore  be 
equivalent  to  fertilizing  it,  so  far  as  plant - 
growth   is   concerned. 

3.    How  Good  Structure  is  Secured 

54.  The  size  of  the  soil  particles,  determin- 
ing the  texture  of  the  soil,  cannot  be  modified  to 
any  appreciable  extent  by  ordinary  farm  practices. 
Tillage  has  little  effect  in  changing  the  size  of 
the  ultimate  particles. 

55.  The  arrangement  of  the  particles,  which 
determines  the  structure,  can  be  greatly  changed 
by  farm  practice.  If  the  structure  is  lumpy  and 
open,  the  soil  needs  pulverization;  if  it  is  com- 
pact and  hard,  it  needs  loosening  up.  Very 
loose  and  leachy  soils  are  usually  improved  if 
the  particles,  particularly  in  the  under  soil,  are 
brought  together  and  compacted. 

56.  The  size  of  the  granules  (or  aggregations 
of  particles)  of  soils  is  modified  by  three  general 


40  PRINCIPLES     OF     AGRICULTURE 

means:  (a)  by  apply  mechanical  force,  as  in  all 
the  operations  of  tilling;  (&)  by  setting  at  work 
various  physical  forces,  as  weathering  (fall-plow- 
ing is  a  typical  example) ,  and  the  results  follow- 
ing under-draining;  (c)  by  applying  some  ma- 
terial that  acts  chemically  on  the  particles.  (The 
first  caption,  a,  is  illustrated  in  paragi-aphs  26, 
2Ga,  266,  27,  28;  and  it  is  further  explained  in 
Chapter  iv.) 

57.  (&)  Under-drainage  has  two  general  uses, 
— it  removes  superfluous  water,  and  improves 
the  physical  condition  of  the  soil.  The  latter 
use  is  often  the  more  important.  The  improve- 
ment of  the  texture  is  the  result,  chiefly,  of 
preventing  water-soaking  and  of  admitting  air. 
Under- drained  soils  become  "deeper."  The  water- 
table  is  lowered,  since  the  depth  at  which  water 
stands  tends  to  approach  nearer  and  nearer  to 
the  depth  of  the  drains  and  thereby  the  plant 
roots  are  enabled  to  penetrate  more  deeply. 

58.  (c)  Some  substances  have  the  power  to 
break  down  or  to  pulverize  hard  soils,  or  to  bind 
together  loose  ones,  or  otherwise  to  modify  the 
structure.  Such  materials — which  are  applied 
for  their  remote  or  secondary  chemical  effects — 
are  called  amendments.  Lime  is  a  typical  ex- 
ample. Quick-lime  is  known  to  make  clay  lands 
mellow,  and  it  is  supposed  to  cement  or  bind 
together  the  particles  of  sands  or  gravels.    Most 


THE     TEXTURE     OF     THE      SOIL  41 

chemical  fertilizers  are  both  amendments  and 
direct  fertilizers,  since  they  modify  the  structure 
of  the  soil  as  well  as  add  plant-food  to  it. 

59.  The  extraneous  or  supplementary  ma- 
terials (54)  which  directly  modify  the  structure 
of  soils  are  those  that  make  humus  (33), 
as  green-manures,  farm-manures,  and  the  like. 
Stable-manure  is  usually  more  important  in  im- 
proving soil  structure  than  in  directly  supplying 
plant-food. 

4.    Structure  and  Manures 

60.  We  have  now  seen  that  the  farmer 
should  give  attention  to  the  structure  of  his  soil 
before  he  worries  about  its  richness.  The  con- 
ditions must  first  be  made  fit  or  comfortable 
for  the  growing  of  plants:  then  the  stimulus 
of  special  or  high  feeding  may  be  applied. 
But  manures  and  fertilizers  may  aid  in  secur- 
ing this  good  structure  at  the  same  time  that 
they  add  plant-food.  Yet  fertilizer,  however 
rich,  may  be  applied  to  soils  wholly  without 
avail;  and  the  best  results  from  condensed 
or  chemical  fertilizers  are  usually  secured  on 
soils  that  are  in  the  best  tilth.  That  is,  it  is 
almost  useless  to  apply  commercial  fertilizers 
to  lands  that  are  not  in  proper  physical  con- 
dition for  the  best  growth  of  crops. 


42 


THE    PRINCIPLES     OF    AGRICULTURE 


s^GGESTIO^'s  oy  chapter  ii 

49a.  The  following  extracts  from  Bulletin  119  of  the  Cor- 
nell Experiment  Station  illustrate  the  subject  under  discussion: 
"The  other  day,  I  secured  one  sample  of  soil  from  a  very  hard 
clay  knoll  upon  which  beans  had  been  planted,  but  in  which 
they  were    almost  unable  to  germinate ;    another  sample  from  a 


Fig.  7.     Examples  of  poor  and  good  texrore. 

contiguous  soil,  in  which  beans  were  growing  luxuriantly;  and, 
as  a  third  sample,  I  chipped  a  piece  of  rock  off  my  house,  which 
is  built  of  stone  of  the  neighborhood.  All  of  these  samples  were 
taken  to  the  chemist  for  analysis.  The  samples  of  soil  which 
were  actually  taken  to  the  chemist  are  shown  in  Fig.  7.  The 
rock  ("sample  HI),  was  hard  native  stone." 

The  figures  give  the  percentages  of  some  of  the  leading  con- 
stituents in  the  three  materials. 


Phosphoric  Organic 

Moisture      ^'itrogen  acid       Potash   Lime      matter 


1.  Tnproductive  clay.. 

.    13.25 

.08 

.20 

1.1 

.41 

3.19 

n.  Good  bean  land 

.    1.5.95 

.11 

.17 

.75 

.61 

5.45 

in.     Rock 

.08 

2.12 

2.55 

''In  other  words,  the  chemist  says  that  the   poorer  soil — the 
one  upon  which  I  cannot  grow  beans — is  the  richer  in  mineral 


THE     TEXTURE     OF     THE     SOIL  43 

plant-food,  and  that  the  rook  contains  a  most  aVnindant  supply 
of  potash  and  about  half  as  much  phosphoric  acid  as  the  good 
bean  soil. 

"All  this,  after  all,  is  not  surprising,  when  we  come  to  think 
of  it.  Every  good  farmer  knows  that  a  hard  and  lumpy  soil 
will  not  grow  good  crops,  no  matter  how  much  plant-food  it 
may  contain.  A  clay  soil  which  has  been  producing  good  crops 
for  any  number  of  years  may  be  so  seriously  injured  t|y  one 
injudicious  plowing  in  a  wet  time  as  to  ruin  it  for  the  grow- 
ing of  crops  for  two  or  three  years.  The  injury  lies  in  the 
modification  of  its  physical  structure,  not  in  the  lessening  of  its 
plant-food.  A  sandy  soil  may  also  be  seriously  impaired  for 
the  growing  of  any  crop  if  the  humus,  or  decaying  organic 
matter,  is  allowed  to  burn  out  of  it.  It  then  becomes  leachy, 
it  quickly  loses  its  moisture,  and  it  becomes  excessively  hot 
in  bright  sunny  weather.  Similar  remarks  may  be  applied  to 
all  soils.  That  is,  the  texture  and  structure  or  physical  condition  of 
Ihe  soil  is  nearly  always  more  important  than  its  mere  richness  in 
plant-food, 

"The  first  step  in  the  enrichment  of  unproductive  land  is 
to  improve  its  physical  condition  by  means  of  careful  and 
thorough  tillage,  by  the  addition  of  humus,  and,  perhaps,  by 
under-drainage.  It  must  first  be  put  in  such  condition  that  plants 
can  grow  in  it.  After  that,  the  addition  of  chemical  fertilizers 
may  pay  by  giving  additional  or  redundant  growth." 

53a.  Read  Chapter  ii.  in  King's  "Soil."  The  following  is 
quoted  from  that  work,  p.  72:  "Suppose  we  take  a  marble 
exactly  one  inch  in  diameter.  It  will  just  slip  inside  a  cube 
one  inch  on  a  side,  and  will  hold  a  film  of  water  3.1416  square 
inches  in  area.  But  reduce  the  diameters  of  the  marbles  to  one- 
tenth  of  an  inch,  and  at  least  1,000  of  them  will  be  required  to 
fill  the  cubic  inch,  and  their  aggregate  surface  area  will  be 
31.416  square  inches.  If,  however,  the  diameters  of  these  spheres 
be  reduced  to  one -hundredth  of  an  inch,  1,000,000  of  them 
will  be  required  to  make  a  cubic  inch,  and  their  total  surface 
area  will  then  be  314.16  square  inches.  Suppose,  again,  the  soil 
particles  to  have   a  diameter  of  one -thousandth  of  an  inch.     It 


44  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

will  then  require  1,000,000,000  of  them  to  eompletelT  fill  the 
cubic  inch,  while  their  aggregate  surface  area  must  measure 
3141.59    square  inches." 

536.  Another  illustration  may  be  taken  ('^Texture  of  Soil 
and  Conservation  of  Moisture,"  being  a  first  lesson  in  the  Cornell 
farmer's  reading  course) :  "Let  us  suppose  the  soil  in  one  of 
your  plowed  fields  is  in  little  lumps  of  the  uniform  size  of  inch 
cubes — that  is,  one  square  inch  on  each  side  of  the  cube.  How 
many  square  inches  of  surface  has  that  cube  exposed  to  root 
contact  and  moisture  film  ?  Now  imagine  that  one  of  these  inch 
cubes  is  broken  up  into  smaller  cubes  measuring  one -eighth  of 
an  inch, — how  many  square  inches  of  surface  will  you  now  have 
exposed  to  root  contact  and  film  moisture  ?  Now  reflect  what 
you  hare  done  in  breaking  up  the  inch  cube  of  earth.  The 
amount  of  earth  has  not  been  increased  one  atom  ;  yet,  by  fining 
it,  you  have  increased  just  eight  times  the  root  pasturage  and 
surface  for  water  film.  The  practical  point  of  this  lesson  is  that 
by  superior  tillage  you  can  expand  one  acre  into  eight,  or  by 
neglectful  management  eight  acres  can  be  reduced  to  one.  It 
also  demonstrates  why  a  skillful  farmer  can  produce  as  much 
from  fifty  acres  as  a  careless  one  can  from  four  hundred,  and 
also  confirms  the  assertion  that  success  in  modern  agriculture 
depends  more  on  the  size  of  the  farmer  than  upon  the  size  of 
the  farm." 

53c.  This  fining  or  dividing  of  the  soil,  therefore,  increases 
the  feeding  area  for  roots  ;  or,  as  Jethro  TuU  said,  it  extends 
the  "root  pasturage."  "The  value  of  simple  tillage  or  fining  of 
the  land  as  a  means  of  increasing  its  productivity  was  first  clearly 
set  forth  in  1733  by  Jethro  TuU,  in  his  'New  Horse  Hoeing  Hus- 
bandry.' The  premises  upon  which  TuU  founded  his  system  are 
erroneous.  He  supposed  that  plant  roots  actually  take  in  or  ab- 
sorb the  fine  particles  of  the  earth,  and,  therefore,  the  finer  and 
more  numerous  these  particles  the  more  luxuriantly  the  plant 
will  grow.  His  system  of  tillage,  however,  was  correct,  and  his 
experiments  and  writings  have  had  a  most  profound  influence. 
If  only  one  book  of  all  the  thousands  which  have  been  written  on 
agriculture  and  rural  afEairs  were  to  be  preserved  to  future  gen- 


THE    TEXTURE     OF     THE     SOIL 


45 


erations,  I  should  want  that  honor  conferred  upon  Tull's  'Horse 
Hoeing  Husbandry.'  It  marked  the  beginning  of  the  modem 
application  of  scientific  methods  to  agriculture,  and  promulgated 
a  system  of  treatment  of  the  land  which,  in  its  essential  princi- 
ples, is  now  accepted  by  every  good  farmer,  and  the  appreciation 
of  which  must  increase  to  the  end  of  time." — Bailey,  Bull.  119, 
Cornell  Exp.  Sta.     Tull  died  in  1740. 

57fl.  "The  actual  contour  of  the  water-table  in  an  under- 
drained  field,  where  the  lines  of  tile  are  placed  at  distances  of 
33  feet  and  4  feet  below  the  surface  of  the  ground,  is  shown  in 
Fig.  8,  which  gives  the  contours  as  they  existed  forty-eight  hours 


Fig.  8.    Showing  the  actual  contour  of  the  water-table  in  a  tile-draiued  field. 


after  a  rainfall  of  .87  inches.  In  this  case  the  height  of  the 
water  midway  between  the  lines  of  tile  varied  from  4  inches  to 
12  inches  above  the  tops  of  the  tile." — King,  The  Soil,  p.  259. 

58rt.  Bead  Roberts'  "Fertility  of  the  Land,"  pp.  303-312,  on 
the  physical  effects  of  liming  land  ;  also  "The  Soil,"  p.  30,  and 
Wheeler's  "Liming  of  Soils,"  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  77,  U.  S. 
Dept.  Agric.  The  effects  of  lime  in  flocculating  or  mellowing 
clay  may  be  observed  by  working  up  a  ball  of  stiff  clay  with 
common  water  and  a  similar  ball  with  lime  water  ;  the  former 
will  become  hard  on  drying,  but  the  latter  will  readily  fall  to 
pieces.  Lime  water  may  be  made  by  shaking  up  a  lump  of  lime 
in  a  bottle  of  water. 

60a.  One  of  the  most  forcible  illustrations  of  the  value  of 
fine  texture  of   soil    is   afforded    by  the    result  which  the  florist 


45 


THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 


obtains  in  pots.  He  mixes  and  sifts  his  soils  so  that  it  is  all 
amenable  to  root  action,  and  he  is  able  to  raise  a  larger  plant  from 
a  handful  of  soil  than  the  general  farmer  grows  from  a  half 
bushel.     See  Fig.  9. 


Fig.  9.    Showing  the  possibilities  of  a  potful  of  soil. 


Chapter  III 
THE    MOISTURE     IN    THE    SOIL 

L.  A.   CLINTON 

1.   Why  Moisture  Is  Important 

61.  However  much  plant -food  there  may  b<? 
in  the  soil,  plants  cannot  grow  without  the 
presence  of  water.  Water  is  needed  for  three 
purposes:  to  dissolve  the  plant-food  and  thereby 
enable  it  to  enter  the  plant;  to  contribute  to  the 
building  of  plant  tissue  and  to  the  maintenance  of 
the  life  of  the  plant;  and  to  regulate  temperature. 

62.  A  consideration  of  the  amount  of  water 
required  by  plants  in  their  growth  shows  why 
supplying  plant- food  alone  does  not  insure  the 
success  of  the  crop.  The  amount  of  water  used 
by  some  of  the  common  crops  in  their  develop- 
ment to  maturity  is  approximately  as  follows  : 

Corn 50  bus.  per  acre  requires  1,500,000  lbs.  of  water. 

Potatoes.    .    .  200  bus.         "  "  1,268,000  lbs. 

Oats 29  bus.         "  "  1,192,000  lbs.         " 

63.  The  failure  of  crops  is  more  frequently 
due  to  improper  control  of  moisture  than  to  any 

(47) 


48  THE     PRIXCTPLES     OF     AGBICULTUBE 

other  one  cause.  In  certain  sections  of  the  conn- 
try  irrigation  is  successfully  employed:  but 
most  farmers  must  depend  on  the  rainfall  as  the 
chief  source  for  the  supply  of  moisture. 

2.  H'Mr   Wat<rr  li  Held  in  the  Soil 

64r.    TL  :-?r  in  tL-   -   :.    may  Vje  in  one  of 

three  lorn,-, — iree.  capilltiiy.  or  hygroscopic 
watt;r. 

60.  The  free  water  of  the  soil  is  that  which 
flows  under  the  influence  of  gravity.  It  is  this 
water  which  is  removed  in  part  by  drains,  and 
which  is  the  source  of  supply  for  wells  and 
spring-.  It  is  not  utilized  directly  by  cultivated 
plants,  but  it  is  valuable  when  removed  a 
proper  distance  from  the  surface,  because  it 
serves  as  a  reservoir  from  which  moisture  may 
be  drawn  by  capillary  action. 

QQ.  Capillary  water  is  that  which  is  held  by 
adhesion  to  the  soil  particles,  or  in  the  inter- 
stices or  openings  between  the  particles.  It  is 
not  controlled  or  influenced  by  gravity,  but 
passes  from  one  part  of  the  soil  to  another, 
tending  to  keep  the  soil  in  equilibrium  (or  in 
uniform  condition)  so  far  as  its  moisture  is 
concerned.  The  capillary  water  is  the  direct 
supply  for  plants,  and  it  is  this  which  should 
be  most  carefnlly  ]:      :  :-l  :  r  and  saved. 


THE     MOISTURE     IN    THE     SOIL  49 

67.  Hygroscopic  water  is  that  which  is  held 
firmly  as  a  film  surrounding  each  particle  of 
soil.  It  does  not  move  under  the  influence  of 
gravity  or  capillarity,  and  it  is  held  so  firmly 
that  it  is  driven  off  only  when  the  soil  is 
exposed  to  a  temperature  of  2i.2°  Fahr.  The 
dryest  road- dust  firmly  holds  its  hygroscopic 
water,  and  it  may  constitute  from  2  to  3  per 
cent  or  more  of  the  weight  of  the  soil.  If  of 
service  to  plants  in  any  way,  it  is  only  dur- 
ing the  most  excessive  droughts,  in  which  case 
it  may  sustain  the  plants  for  a  time,  until 
capillary  water  is  supplied. 

68.  Both  capillary  and  hygroscopic  water  are 
frequently  referred  to  as  "film  moisture,"  frou) 
the  fact  that  they  are  held  as  a  film  of  greater 
or  less  thickness  around  the  soil  particles. 
That  part  which  has  the  most  intimate  and 
permanent  contact  with  the  particle  is  the  hygro- 
scopic water,  and  the  outer  part  of  the  film, 
which  may  move  away  from  the  soil  particle,  is 
the  capillary  water.  Very  wet  land  is  that 
which  contains  too  much  free  water  ;  whereas, 
soils  which  are  dryish  and  crumbly  usually 
contain  sufiBcient  water  for  the  growing  of 
plants.  That  is,  lands  in  good  condition  for 
the  growing  of  crops  are  moist,  not  wet ;  and 
we  may,  therefore,  speak  of  the  moisture  of  the 
soil  rather   than  the  water  of  the  soil. 


50  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

69.  The  free  water  of  the  soil  is  found  at 
varying  depths.  Frequently  it  comes  to  the  sur- 
face and  oozes  out  as  springs.  Again  it  is  many 
feet  below  the  surface.  The  supply  is  main- 
tained by  rainfall,  that  part  which  is  not  held 
by  capillary  attraction  or  removed  by  surface 
drainage  passing  do\Nni  to  the  level  of  the  free 
water.  In  soils  which  are  very  porous  and 
open,  as  gravelly  soils,  a  large  part  of  the  rain- 
fall passes  down  quickly,  and  such  soils  are 
said  to  be  "leachy."  With  soils  that  are  fine 
and  compact  and  impervious,  as  in  many  clays, 
the  water  runs  off  by  surface  drainage,  and 
not  only  is  the  supply  of  capillary  water  not 
increased  to  any  perceptible  degree,  but  the 
surface  flowing  removes  valuable  plant -food, 
causes  erosion,  and  increases  dangers  from 
floods.  Under  these  circumstances  rainfall  may 
be   a  detriment. 

3.    How   the  Moisture -holding   Capacity  of  the 
Soil   May   he   Increased 

3rt.    Tlie    capacity    of  the    soil 

70.  The  first  step  toward  utilizing  the  water 
of  the  soil  is  to  so  fit  the  land  that  the  rainfall 
may  be  stored.  In  the  winter  months  a  large 
percentage  of  the  rainfall  is  removed  by  surface 


THE    MOISTURE    IN    THE    SOIL  51 

drainage,  and  in  the  summer  months  by  evapo- 
ration. The  soil  should  be  put  into  such  con- 
dition in  tiie  fall  that  it  can  readily  absorb  the 
winter  rainfall.  If  the  surface  is  hard,  smooth 
and  compacted,  as  is  often  the  case  with  clay 
soils,  it  should  be  loosened  with  the  plow  and 
be  left  rough  and  uneven.  If  there  is  danger  of 
surface  erosion  or  washing,  some  quick -germi- 
nating seed  (as  rye  or  pea)  may  be  sown  in 
early  fall.  The  plants  prevent  the  rain  from 
flowing  away  rapidly,  and  the  roots  bind  the 
particles   of    soil    in   place. 

71.  The  capacity  of  the  soil  to  hold  water 
depends  upon  its  original  constitution  (whether 
clay,  loam,  sand,  etc.)  and  upon  the  treatment 
which  it  has  received.  If  the  humus  or  decay- 
ing organic  matter  has  been  depleted,  its  mois- 
ture-holding capacity  is  diminished. 

72.  The  capacity  of  the  different  soils  to  hold 
capillary  and  hygroscopic  water  (when  dried  at 
a  temperature  of  144°)  is  shown  by  the  follow- 
ing-table : 

Per  cent  {by  iceight)      Per  cent  (bii  vol-      Pounds  of  water 
of  moisture  held  time)  held  in  in  1  cxi.ft. 

Kind  of  soil  in  soil  soil  of  soil 

Silicious  sand 25  37.9  27.3 

Sandy  clay 40  51.4  38.8 

Loamy  clay 50  57.3  41.4 

Stiff  brick-clay     ....    61  62.9  45.4 

Humua 181  69.8  50.1 

Garden  mold 89  67,3  48.4 


52  THE    PRINCIPLES     OF    AGRICULTURE 

3&.    Capacity   is   increased  hy  the  addition   of  humus 

73.  A  stadv  of  the  above  table  reveals  the 
fact  that  the  humous  soil  (33)  far  exceeds  any 
of  the  others  in  its  ability  to  hold  moisture. 
By  long- continued  cropping  and  tilling,  without 
making  proper  returns  in  the  way  of  green- 
manures  or  barn -manures,  the  humus  may  be 
so  reduced  that  the  soil  consists  very  largely  of 
mineral  matter.  One  reason  why  newly  cleared 
lands  frequently  give  more  satisfactory  retiu'ns 
than  lands  which  have  been  long  cropped, 
is  that  the  fresh  land  is  rich  in  humus.  The 
soil  is  consequently  open  and  porous,  and  the 
rain  which  falls  is  quickly  absorbed,  and  is 
largely  retained  as  capillary  or  hygroscopic 
water. 

74.  The  humus  of  the  soil  may  be  gi"adually 
increased  by  plowing  under  gi-een- crops,  by  the 
use  of  barn- manures,  by  using  cover- crops 
during  the  late  summer  and  fall  and  plowing 
them  under  in  the  spring  before  they  have 
used  up  the  moisture  which  should  be  saved 
for  the  succeeding  crop.  These  practices  can 
be  overdone,  however,  and  the  soil  made  so 
loose  and  open  that  the  winds  cause  it  to 
dry  out  quickly,  and  the  power  of  di'awing 
moisture  from  the  stores  of  free  water  will  be 
gi'eatly   lessened. 


THE    MOISTURE    IN    THE    SOIL  53 

3c.    Capacity   may  he   increased  by  under -drainage 

75.  Drainage  has  an  intimate  relation  to  soil 
moisture.  By  drainage  is  meant  the  means 
employed  for  the  removal  of  the  surplus  free 
water.  Surface  or  open  ditches  may  serve  as 
conduits  to  carry  off  surface  water,  but  as  soil 
drains  they  are  failures.  The  correct  method 
for  removing  the  surplus  water  of  rainfall  is  to 
cause  it  to  sink  into  the  soil  and  be  removed 
by  under- drains.  That  which  is  removed  by 
surface  flow  fails  to  impart  any  beneficial  effect 
to  the   soil  (69). 

76.  Lands  which  are  well  under -drained  are 
porous.  The  rain  which  falls  upon  them  passes 
down  quickly,  and  is  not  removed  by  surface 
flow.  It  is  removed  only  when  the  level  of  the 
free  water  rises  to  the  level  of  the  drain.  By 
observing  the  action  of  drains  which  are  of  dif- 
ferent depths,  it  has  been  found  that  after  a 
protracted  drought  the  drains  which  begin  to 
flow  first  are  those  which  are  at  the  greatest 
depth,  showing  that  as  the  level  of  the  free 
water  rises  to  the  drain  the  flow  begins,  and 
that  it  is  not  removed  to  any  considerable  ex- 
tent in   its  downward   passage. 

77.  The  sinking  of  the  water  through  the  soil 
does  more  good  than  merely  to  supply  moisture. 
In  the  spring  the  rain  is  warmer  than  the   soil, 


54  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

and  in  passing  down  it  gives  up  some  of  its 
heat,  and  the  soil  temperatui-e  is  thereby  raised. 
In  the  summer  the  rain  is  the  cooler,  and  the 
soil  parts  with  some  of  its  heat.  On  lands 
which  have  been  thoroughly  under -drained,  crops 
are  far  better  able  to  withstand  drought  than 
those  on  land  which  needs  drainage. 

78.  Few  cultivated  plants  can  thrive  with 
their  roots  in  free  water.  When  the  free  water 
is  near  the  surface,  it  is  injurious  in  several 
ways  :  it  limits  the  feeding  space  ;  it  makes  the 
soil  cold  in  spi'ing  ;  it  occupies  the  space  which 
should  be  filled  with  fttr  ;  it  causes  plant -food  to 
be  locked  up  ;  it  dilutes  the  plant -food  in  solu- 
tion; it  prevents  the  action  of  micro-organisms; 
it  causes  the  rainfall  to  be  carried  off  largely  by 
surface  drainage.  Thorough  under- drainage  tends 
to  remove  all  these  unfavorable  conditions.  If 
there  is  no  effective  under- drainage,  either  by 
natural  or  artificial  channels,  the  water  must 
escape    bj"  surface  evaporation. 

Sd.   The  capaHty  is  increased  hy  proper  Ullage 

79.  Tillage  enables  soils  to  hold  moisture  by 
two  means  :  by  increasing  the  depth  of  the  soil 
in  which  the  plants  can  grow  (that  is,  by  in- 
creasing the  depth  of  the  reservoir),  and  by 
increasing  the  capillary  power  of  the  soil.     We 


THE     MOISTURE     IN     THE     SOIL  55 

have  already  seen  (57,  75-78)  that  draining  in- 
creases the  depth  of  the  soil  ;  so  does  deep  plow- 
ing. Capillarity  is  increased  by  finely  dividing 
or  pulverizing  the  soil. 

80.  Increasing  the  capillarity  increases  the 
moisture -holding  capacity  of  soils  in  two  ways  : 
it  enables  the  soil  to  actually  hold  more  mois- 
ture per  square  inch  ;  it  enables  it  to  draw 
up  moistui'e  from  the  free  water  of  the  lower 
subsoil   (65). 

81.  By  the  action  of  capillary  attraction, 
moisture  moves  from  one  layer  of  soil  to  another 
(66),  usually  from  the  lower  to  the  upper,  to 
supply  the  place  of  that  which  has  been  used 
by  plants,  or  which  has  been  lost  by  evapora- 
tion. The  rapidity  of  movement  and  the  force 
with  which  it  is  held  depend  upon  various 
conditions.  A  soil  in  which  the  particles  are 
somewhat  large,  as  in  sandy  or  gravelly  soils, 
may,  if  well  compacted,  show  considerable  ra- 
pidity of  movement,  but  weak  power  to  retain 
moisture.  The  finer  the  division  of  the  soil 
particles  the  greater  is  the  surface  presented. 
In  finely  di\ided  clay  soils,  the  movement  of 
capillary  water  is  slow  but  the  retaining  power 
is  great.  Occasionally  it  happens  that  the  par- 
ticles are  so  fine  that  the  spaces  disappear,  and 
there  is  produced  a  condition  through  which 
moisture    and    air   cannot   pass.      This   state   of 


56  THE     PRINCIPLES     OF     AGRICULTrRE 

affairs  is  produced  when  clay  soils  are  ''puddled." 
It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  soils  which  are 
either  very  loose  or  exceedingly  finely  pulverized 
are  not  in  the  best  condition  for  the  holding  of 
moisture  ;  but  the  danger  of  over -pulverizing  is 
very  small. 

•4.    The    Conservation    of  Moisture 

82.  By  conservation  of  moisture  is  meant 
the  prevention  of  all  unnecessary  waste  of  the 
capillary  water  of  the  soil,  either  through  weeds 
or  by  evaporation.  It  is  the  saving  and  utiliz- 
ing of  moisture.  The  object  is  to  make  the 
water  which  seeks  to  escape  from  the  surface 
pass  through  the  cultivated  plants.  Plants  re- 
quire that  theu'  food  be  in  solution.  The 
moisture  of  the  soil  contains  plant -food  in 
solution.  If  this  moisture  is  permitted  to 
escape  from  the  surface  by  evaporation,  it 
leaves  the  plant -food  at  the  surface.  This  food 
cannot  nourish  plants,  because  it  is  out  of  the 
range  of  their  feeding  roots.  If  the  escape  of 
the  moisture  is  thi'ough  the  plants,  there  is 
created  a  moisture  cuiTent  towards  the  roots, 
and  the  plant -food  is  carried  where  it  can  be 
used  to   advantage. 

83.  Moisture  rapidly  rises  to  the  surface 
by  capillarity,  to  replace   that  which  has  evapo- 


THE    MOISTURE    IN    THE    SOIL  57 

rated  or  has  been  used  by  plants,  if  the  soil  is 
in  propel'  physical  condition.  Measures  should 
be  adopted  to  prevent  this  moisture  from  be- 
ing lost  by  evaporation.  The  most  practical 
and  effective  method  is  by  establishing  and 
maintaining  a  surface  mulch  of  soil.  By  fre- 
quent use  of  implements  of  tillage,  which  loosen 
the  soil  to  a  depth  of  two  or  three  inches,  this 
mulch  may  be  preserved  and  the  moisture 
saved.  The  drier  and  looser  this  mulch,  the 
more  effective  it  is.  This  dry  and  loose  surface 
breaks  the  capillary  connection  between  the  air 
and  the  moist  under -soil,  and  has  the  effect  of 
interposing  a  foreign  body  between  the  atmos- 
phere and  the  earth.  A  board  or  a  blanket 
laid  on  the  earth  has  the  same  effect,  and  the 
soil  is  moist  beneath  it.  This  soil -mulch  should 
be  renewed,  or  repaired,  in  the  growing  season, 
as  often  as  it  becomes  hard  or  baked,  by  means 
of  shallow  tillage. 

SUGGESTIONS    ON  CHAPTER  III 

62g.  To  show  that  growing  plants  are  constantly  giving  off 
large  quantities  of  water  through  their  foliage,  grow  corn,  beans 
or  squashes  in  rich  soil  in  a  flower-pot.  Over  the  soil  in  the  pot 
should  be  placed  a  rubber  or  oiled  cloth  covering,  so  that  no 
moisture  can  come  from  this  source.  Then  over  the  plant  place 
s  glass  bell-jar  or  a  common  fruit-jar,  and  notice  how  rapidly 
tne  moisture  collects  on  the  interior  of  the  jar  (Fig.  10).  This 
experiment  may  be  conducted  even  better  in  the  field. 


58 


THE     PRINCIPLES     OF     AGRICULTURE 


63a.  Irrigation  is  of  primary  value,  of  course,  in  all  arid  coun- 
tries; but  as  complete  systems  of  land  culture  develop,  it  must  be 
employed  also  in  countries  of  free  rainfall  in  order  to  tide  over 
periods  of  drought  and  to  enable  the  husbandman  to  control  his  con- 
ditions. Irrigation  will  come  more  and  more  to  be  a  truly  national 
problem. 

66a.  Capillary  action,  or  capillarity,  is  due  to  the  attraction 
of   matter  for   mattei.     Capillary   attraction   is   that   force  which 


Fig.  10.     How  to  show  that  plants  give 
off  moisture. 


Fig.  11.     To  determine  how  much 
water  a  soil  can  hold. 


causes  a  liquid  to  ascend  or  descend  or  move  laterally  through 
very  small  openings  or  tubes,  or  the  interstices  between  fine  par- 
ticles of  solid  matter,  or  by  which  it  is  held  to  the  surface  of  the 
particles  themselves.  The  teacher  should  illustrate  capillarity  by 
the  familiar  experiment  of  standing  tubes  of  glass  in  water.  The 
smaller  the  bore  of  the  tube,  the  higher  the  water  rises.  The  oil 
rises  in  the  wick  by  means  of  capillarity.     The  principle  may  be 


THE    MOISTURE    IN    THE     SOIL  59 

illustrated  by  filling  straight  (or  argand)  lamp  ehimneys  with 
compacted  dry  soil  and  standing  them  in  a  dish  of  water. 

68a.  Film  moisture  can  be  illustrated  by  dipping  a  marble 
into  water  and  observing  the  skin  or  film  of  moisture  adhering  to 
all  sides.  The  most  satisfactory  conditions  of  soil  moisture  exist 
when  each  soil  grain  is  covered  by  a  film  of  water.  The  char- 
acter of  film  moisture  is  changed  by  the  thickness  of  the  film. 
The  thicker  the  film,  the  less  the  tension  to  the  body,  until 
it  becomes  so  thick  as  to  separate  from  that  body  and  become  a 
drop  of  water  ;  and  it  is  then  subject  to  the  law  of  gravitation, 
and  can  travel  but  in  one  direction — downward.  While  in  a  state 
of  film  moisture,  it  is  amenable  to  the  law  of  capillary  attraction, 
and  can  move  in  any  direction,  which  means  that  it  goes  towards 
the  thinnest  films.  The  readiness  with  which  water  films  travel 
can  be  seen  by  dipping  a  piece  of  cube  sugar  into  coffee  and 
observing  how  quickly  the  liquid  pervades  the  lump  of  sugar. 
That  soil  moisture  may  move  with  the  same  facility  as  the 
coffee  does  in  the  sugar,  it  is  necessary  to  have  the  soil  grains 
in  proper  touch  one  with  another  ; — not  so  far  apart  but  that 
the  water  films  can  reach  one  to  the  other,  not  so  close  as  to 
impede  the  progress  of  the  films.  The  two  extremes  in  soil  can 
be  seen  in  loose  gravel  and  hard  clay. 

70fl.  By  rainfall  is  meant  precipitation, — the  fall  of  water  in 
any  form,  as  in  rain,  snow  and  hail. 

72a.  That  different  soils  vary  in  their  capacity  to  hold 
moisture  may  be  illustrated  by  the  following  experiment  :  Pro- 
vide several  flower-pots  of  the  same  size  and  shape.  The  va- 
rious soils  should  be  thoroughly  dried  in  an  oven.  At  least 
four  kinds  of  soil  should  be  tested:  gravel,  sand,  clay,  and  gar- 
den loam.  Place  an  equal  weight  of  each  soil  in  the  pots. 
Suspend  one  of  the  pots  from  a  common  spring-scales  (Fig.  11). 
Notice  the  number  of  pounds  and  ounces  registered.  Now 
slowly  pour  water  upon  the  soil  until  it  is  thoroughly  saturated. 
Cover  with  a  piece  of  oiled  cloth  or  oiled  paper,  and  allow  it 
to  drain  until  no  more  water  will  flow  from  it.  The  water 
which  drains  from  the  pot  is  the  free  water.  The  difference  in 
weight  of  the  pot  of  soil  before  soaking,  and  after  the  drainage, 
shows  the  amount  of  water  held  by  capillarity. 


GO 


THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 


^^m 


74a.  The  plowing  under  of  green-crops  sometimes  gives 
onsatisfac-tory  results.  If  a  heavy  growth  is  plowed  under  when 
the    soil    does    not    contain    sufficient    moisture    to    cause    ready 

decomposition,  this  layer  of  foreign 
matter  prevents  the  passage  of 
the  water  from  the  subsoil  to  the 
surface  soil  (Fig.  12).  The  crop 
which  is  then  planted  must  nec- 
essarily feed  for  some  time  in  the 
I)  surface  soil,  and  in  case  of  pro- 
longed drought  a  partial  or  com- 
plete failure  of  the  crop  may  re- 
sult. Heavy  growths  of  cover- 
crops,  as  well  as  coarse,  strawy 
manures,  should  be  plowed  under 
when  there  is  sufficient  moisture 
in  the  soil  to  cause  decomposition. 
In  case  it  is  necessary  to  plow 
them  under  when  the  soil  is  dry, 
a  heavy  roller  will  so  compact  the 
soil  that  capillarity  will  be  in  part  restored  and  decomposition 
hastened. 

75a.  WMle  surface  drains  are  to  be  avoided,  yet  it  frequently 
becomes  necessary  to  provide  a  conduit  or  open  ditch  into  which 
tile  drains  may  open,  or  to  remove  flood  water.  It  is  a  common 
error  to  have  the  banks  too  vertical.  Through  the  action  of  frost  or 
the  tramping  of  stock,  the  banks  are  constantly  requiring  atten- 
tion. The  dit«h  should  be  wide,  and  the  banks  should  have  a 
gradual  slope,  as  illustrated  in  Fig.  13.  Grass-seed  should  be 
sown  over  the  sides  and  bottom,  so  that  the  sod  will  prevent 
washing.  One  can  drive  across  such  a  ditch.  When  possible, 
this  ditch  would  be  made  the  boundary  of  a  field,  or  be  placed 
near  a  fence. 

76a.  The  depth  at  which  tile  drains  should  be  placed  must  be 
determined  by  the  nature  of  the  soil.  In  very  compact  and 
impervious  soils,  as  clay,  the  drains  must  be  closer  together  and 
nearer  the  surface   than   in  porous   soils.     Land  may  become  so 


Fig.  12.    The  layer  i  a  b  >  of  niide- 
eomposed  herbage. 


THE    MOISTURE    IN    THE    SOIL 


61 


hard  upon  the  surface  that  the  water  of  rainfall  never  can  pass 
down.  By  placing  the  drains  shallow,  the  soil  is  rendered  mellow 
and  porous,  water  passes  down  readily,  the  level  of  free  water  is 
raised,  and  the  surplus  is  removed. 

76b.    The  distance  apart  at  which  drains  should  be  placed  is 
variable,   but  30  feet  is  usually  considered  most  advisable.     The 


level  of  the  free  water  tends  to  rise  higher  at  a  point  midway 
between  drains,  as  shown  in  Fig.  8.  If  the  drains  are  too  far 
apart,  this  tendency  may  be  greater  than  the  tendency  to  move 
toward  the  drain.  In  soils  through  which  the  water  moves  some- 
what readily,  the  drains  may  be  farther  removed  than  in  close, 
impervious  soils. 

78a.    In  the  spring,   on   undrained  soils,   free  water   remains 
for  a  considerable  time  near  the  surface ;  consequently  the  plant 


Fig.  14.    Sides  too  steep. 


roots  cannot  penetrate  deeply  into  the  soil.  When  the  drought 
comes  the  surface  is  first  affected,  and  the  plants  suffer  at  once. 
It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  tap-rooted  plants  are  admirably 
fitted  to  withstand  dry  weather.  Their  feeders  are  deep  in  the 
soil.  It  is  this  condition  which  is  obtained  to  a  certain  extent  by 
under- drainage.  The  soil  above  the  drain  is  made  porous,  the 
water  which  cannot  be  held  by  capillarity  is  quickly  removed,  the 
air    penetrates,    the    soil   becomes   warm    and    congenial.      Thus 


^.■4i^\;j^^0s^C'^<tf^gj^-^t^i, 


Fig.  15.  Showing  the  condition  which 
prevails  in  spring  on  cold,  undrained 
soils, — when  the  water-table  is  too 
high. 


^\ 


Fig.  16.  When  the  drought  comes, 
the  plant  is  still  shaUow-rooted, 
and  it  suffers. 


^-'^-^^i^mm 


Fig.  17.     On  well-drained  soils,  the 
roots  strike  downwards. 


Fig  18.     When  the  drotight  comes, 
the  plant  does  not  stiffer. 


THE    MOISTURE    IN    THE    SOIL  63 

plants  are  euabled  early  in  their  growth  to  send  their  roots  down, 
and  when  drought  comes  they  are  not  seriously  injured.  Figs. 
15-18  illustrate  this. 

79rt.  The  soil  reservoir  may  be  understood  by  likening  it  to 
a  pan.  A  two-inch  rainfall  fills  an  inch-deep  pan  and  runs  it 
over  ;  but  if  the  depth  is  increased  to  two  inches,  none  of  the 
rain  escapes.  The  hard-pan  or  water-table  is  the  bottom  of  the 
soil  reservoir.  If  this  bottom  is  within  a  few  inches  of  the  sur- 
face, the  ordinary  rainfalls  fill  the  soil  so  full  that  it  is  muddy, 
and  some  of  the  water  may  be  lost  by  surface  washing.  Deep 
plowing  lowers  the  bottom  of  the  reservoir,  and  the  soil  holds 
more  water  and  yet  remains  drier. 

81rt.  Tillage  operations  should  vary  according  to  the  nature 
of  the  soil.  Those  soils  which  are  loose  and  porous  should  be 
compacted  after  plowing,  so  that  the  capillary  connection  may 
be  restored  between  the  surface  and  the  subsoil.  The  roller 
may  be  used.  With  finely  divided  soils,  which  have  a  tendency 
to  become  too  compact,  only  so  much  tillage  should  be  given  as 
is  necessary  to  produce  the  proper  degree  of  pulverization.  It  is 
possible  to  so  compact  and  fine  some  soils,  as  clays,  that  the 
spaces  between  the  soil  particles  is  filled,  and  a  condition  is 
produced  which  prevents  the  rise  of  moisture  by  capillarity,  and 
also  prevents  the   absorption  of  rainfall  and  the  passage  of  air. 

816.  Of  general  farm  crops,  about  three  hundred  pounds  of 
water  is  used  in  the  production  of  one  pound  of  dry  matter.  An 
inch  of  rainfall  weighs,  approximately,  one  hurdred  and  thirteen 
and  one-half  tons  to  the  acre.  The  student  will  discover  that 
the  rainfall  of  the  growing  months  may  not  be  sufficient  to  supply 
the  crop  ;  hence  the  necessity  of  saving  the  rainfall  of  winter 
and  spring. 

83a.  On  the  general  subject  of  soil  moisture  and  its  conser- 
vation, read  Chaps,  v.  and  vi.  in  King's  "Soil,"  and  Chap.  iv.  in 
Roberts'  "Fertility  of  the  Land."  Also  consult  publications  of 
the  Experiment  Stations  and  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture; 
and  part  3  in  Vol.  I  of  Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture  ;  also 
the  recent  soil  books  of  Hilgard,  and  of  Lyon  and  Fippin. 


Chapter  IV 

THE    TILLAGE    OF    THE    SOIL 
1.    What   Tillage  Is 

84.  "We  have  found  (52,  79)  that  tillage  is 
one  of  the  means  of  improving  the  physical  con- 
dition of  the  soiL  By  tillage  is  meant  the  stir- 
ring of  the  soil  for  the  purpose  of  facilitating 
the  growth  of  plants. 

85.  We  may  divide  tillage  into  two  general 
kinds, — tillage  which  covers  the  entire  gi'ound, 
and  tillage  which  covers  only  that  part  of  the 
ground  which  lies  between  the  plants.  The 
former  we  may  call  open  or  general  tillage,  and 
the  latter  inter -tillage.  TTe  practice  open  tillage 
before  the  seed  is  sown :  it  therefore  prepares 
the  land  for  the  crop.  We  practice  inter-tillage 
in  fruit  plantations  and  between  the  rows  of 
crops :  it  therefore  maintains  the  condition  of 
the   soil. 

86.  We  may  also  speak  of  tillage  as  deep  or 
shallow.  In  a  general  way,  tillage  is  deep  when 
it  extends  more  than  six  inches  into  the  ground. 
We    also    speak    of    sm-face    tillage,    when    the 

(64) 


THE     TILLAGE     OF     THE     SOIL  65 

stin'ing   is    confined    to    the    one,    two    or    three 
uppermost  inches  of  the  soil. 

2.    What    Tillage   Does 

87.  Tillage  improves  the  physical  condition  of 
the  soil :  by  fining  the  soil  and  extending  the 
feeding  area  for  roots  (53) ;  by  increasing  the 
depth  of  the  soil,  or  loosening  it,  so  that  plants 
obtain  a  deeper  root -hold ;  by  causing  the  soil 
to  dry  out  and  warm  up  in  spring ;  by  mak- 
ing the  conditions  of  moisture  and  temperature 
more  uniform  throughout  the  growing  season. 

88.  It  aids  in  the  saving  of  moisture :  by 
increasing  the  water-holding  capacity  of  the  soil, 
or  deepening  the  reservoir  (79) ;  by  checking  the 
evaporation  (or  conser^i.ng,  or  saving,  moisture) 
by  means  of  the  surface-mulch  (83).  The  for- 
mer is  the  result  of  deep  tillage,  as  deep  plow- 
ing, and  the  latter  of  surface  tillage. 

89.  It  hastens  and  augments  chemical  action 
in  the  soil :  by  aiding  to  set  free  plant-food  ;  by 
promoting  nitrification  (Chap,  vi.);  by  admitting 
air  to  the  soil ;  by  lessening  extremes  of  tempera- 
tm-e  ;  by  hastening  the  decomposition  of  organic 
matter,  as  of  green- crops  or  stable  manures 
which  are  plowed  under  ;  by  extending  all  these 
benefits  to  greater  depths  in  the  soil.  In  a  very 
important  sense,  tillage  is  manm-e. 


66  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

3.  Hou-  Tillage  Is  Performed 

3a.  By  deep-icorking  tools 

90.  Plowing.  We  plow  (a)  to  get  the  land 
in  fit  condition  for  planting,  (6)  to  pulverize  the 
soil,  (c)  to  turn  under  manures,  green- crops, 
and  ti*ash,  (d)  to  deepen  the  soil,  and  thereby 
increase  its  storage  capacity  for  water  and  ex- 
tend the  root  pasturage,  (e)  to  break  up  or  to 
form  a  hard-pan,  (f)  to  warm  and  dry  the  land, 
{g)  to  allow  the  weather  to  act  on  the  soil. 
Passing  over  the  first  subject  (a),  we  may  ex- 
plain the  remaining  objects  of  plowing. 

91.  (h)  Plowing  is  the  most  eflScient  means 
of  pulverizing  the  soil.  That  is,  it  is  not  enough 
that  the  soil  be  inverted  :  it  must  be  ground 
and  broken.  For  purposes  of  pulverization, 
the  shai)e  of  the  plow  should  be  such  as  to 
twist  the  furrow- slice,  causing  it  to  break  and 
crumble  as  it  falls.  The  inoldboard,  therefore, 
should  have  a  sharp,  bold  outward  curve  at  its 
upper  extremity ;  and  the  furrow- slice  should  be 
left  in  an  inclined,  or  even  nearly  perpendicular 
position,  rather  than  turned  over  flat. 

92.  (c)  Since  it  is  important  that  organic 
matter,  as  manures,  shall  quickly  decay  when 
turned  under,  the  plowing  should  be  done  when 
the  season  is  moist,  as  in  early  spring  or  in  fall. 


THE    TILLAGE    OF    THE    SOIL  67 

Clover  and  rye  are  also  apt  to  become  too  hard 
and  dry  if  allowed  to  grow  to  maturity.  Herb- 
age which  does  not  decay  quickly  when  plowed 
down  may  seriously  injure  the  crop  for  that 
season  (74«)-  For  the  covering  of  herbage,  the 
furrow  should  be  broad  and  deep  ;  and  if  the 
land  is  to  be  surface -tilled  shortly  after  the 
plowing,  care  should  be  taken  that  the  furrow- 
slice  turns  down  rather  flat,  so  as  to  completely 
cover  the  plants. 

93.  (d)  The  deeper  the  plowing,  the  greater 
the  water- storage  reservoir  will  be,  other  things 
being  equal;  but  the  plowing  may  be  so  very 
deep  as  to  bring  the  unproductive  subsoil  to  the 
surface,  in  which  case  the  increase  of  storage 
capacity  may  be  overbalanced  by  the  loss  of 
available  fertility.  On  most  soils  and  for  most 
crops,  eight  or  nine  inches  is  a  sufficient  depth 
for  the  plow.  Shallow  soils  are  both  too  dry  and 
too  wet.  They  are  too  dry,  because  much  of  the 
rainfall  is  lost  in  surface  drainage  or  by  very 
rapid  evaporation.  They  are  too  wet  after  every 
hard  rain,  because  the  water  is  held  near  the 
surface  (79a). 

94.  (e)  If  a  hard-pan  is  near  the  surface, 
deep  plowing  will  break  it  up,  although  the 
most  permanent  remedy  may  be  under-drainage. 
In  very  porous  soils,  however,  it  may"  be  neces- 
sary to   form   a   hard-pan    in    order   to   prevent 


68  THE     PRINCIPLES     OF     AGRICULTURE 

leaching.  This  is  done  by  plowing  at  the  same 
depth  each  year,  so  that  the  land  becomes  com- 
pacted under  the  furrow.  Loose  and  sandy  lands 
may  need  shallow  plowiag  rather  than  deep 
plowing. 

95.  (/)  Land  which  is  turned  up  loose  soon 
dries  out,  because  so  much  surface  is  exposed  to 
the  air.  In  spring,  it  is  often  necessary  to  make 
lands  warm  and  dry,  especially  if  such  crops  as 
corn  and  potatoes  and  cotton  are  to  be  planted; 
and  this  is  done  by  veiy  early  plowing.  The 
slices  should  not  be  turned  down  flat,  but 
allowed  to  He  up  loose  and  broken,  and  the 
harrow  should  not  be  used  until  the  soil  begins 
to  be  dry  and  crumbly.  Care  should  be  taken 
not  to  plow  clay  lands  when  wet,  however,  else 
they  become  lumpy  and  unmanageable. 

96.  {g)  Freezing  and  thawing  often  pulverize 
and  improve  hea^y  lands,  particularly  clays. 
Fall  plowing,  therefore,  may  be  advisable  on 
lands  which  tend  to  remain  lumpy.  The  results 
are  best  when  the  fuiTow-slices  are  left  in  a  per- 
pendicular position  (as  in  Fig.  21),  and  when 
the  haiTow  is  not  used  until  the  following  spring. 
Heavy  clays  tend  to  puddle  (81)  or  to  cement 
together  if  fall  plowed,  but  the  danger  is  least 
when  there  is  herbage  (as  heavy  sod  or  stubble) 
or  manure  on  the  land  before  it  is  plowed. 

97.  Subsoihng.     "When  it  is   desired  to  loosen 


THE    TILLAGE    OP    THE    SOIL  69 

or  pulverize  the  land  to  a  great  depth,  the  sub- 
soil plow  is  run  in  the  furrow  behind  the  ordi- 
nary plow.  Subsoiling  provides  a  deeper  bed 
for  roots,  breaks  up  the  hard-pan,  and  dries  the 
soil.  More  permanent  results  are  usually  ob- 
tained by  thorough  under-drainage. 

Sh.  By  surface- working  tools 

98.  Tillage  by  means  of  surf  ace- working 
tools — as  hoes,  rakes,  cultivators,  harrows,  clod- 
crushers — has  the  following  objects :  (a)  to 
make  a  bed  in  which  seeds  can  be  sown  or  plants 
set,  (h)  to  cover  the  seeds,  (c)  to  pulverize  the 
ground,  ((/)  to  establish  and  maintain  an  earth- 
mulch,  (e)  to  destroy  weeds.  Aside  from  these 
specific  benefits,  surface  tillage  contributes  to 
the  general  betterment  of  soil  conditions,  as 
outlined  in  87,  88,  89. 

99.  In  making  the  earth -mulch  (the  im- 
portance of  which  as  a  saver  of  moisture  is 
fully  explained  in  82,  83),  the  other  objects  of 
surface  tillage  are  also  secured ;  therefore  we 
may  confine  our  attention  to  the  earth-mulch  for 
the  present.  The  mulch  is  made  by  shallow 
tillage — about  three  inches  deep,  in  field  condi- 
tions— before  the  seeds  are  sown.  The  first  til- 
lage after  plowing  is  usually  with  a  heavy  and 
coarse  tool, — as  a  clod-crusher,  cutaway  harrow, 


70  THE    PRINCIPLES     OP    AGRICULTURE 

or  spring- tooth  harrow, — and  its  object  is  pulver- 
ization of  the  ground.  The  finishing  is  done 
with  a  small-toothed  and  lighter  harrow :  and 
this  finishing  provides  the  seed-bed  and  the  soil- 
mulch. 

100.  The  earth-mulch  is  destroyed  by  rains : 
the  ground  becomes  baked.  But  even  in  di-y 
times  it  becomes  compact,  and  capillarity  is 
restored  between  the  under-soil  and  the  air. 
Therefore,  the  mulch  must  be  maintained  or  re- 
paired. That  is,  the  harrow  or  cultivator  must 
be  used  as  often  as  the  gi'ound  becomes  hard, 
particularly  after  every  rain.  In  dry  times,  this 
surface  tillage  should  usually  be  repeated  every 
ten  days, — oftener  or  less  often  as  the  judgment 
of  the  farmer  may  dictate.  The  drier  the  time 
and  the  country,  the  greater  the  necessity  for 
maintaining  the  soil-mulch  ;  but  the  mulch  is  of 
comparatively  little  effect  in  a  dry  time  if  the 
soil  moistui'e  was  allowed  to  evaporate  earher 
in  the  season. 

101.  Surface  tillage  is  usually  looked  upon 
only  as  a  means  of  killing  weeds,  but  we  now  see 
that  we  should  till  for  tillage's  sake, — to  make 
the  land  more  productive.  If  tillage  is  frequent 
and  thorough — if  the  soil- mulch  is  maintained — 
weeds  cannot  obtain  a  start ;  and  this  is  the 
ideal  and  pix)fitable  condition,  to  which,  however, 
there  may  be  exceptions. 


THE     TILLAGE     OF     THE     SOIL  71 

3c.  Bij  compacting  tools 

102.  The  compacting  tools  are  rollers,  and 
the  implements  known  as  plankers  or  floats. 
The  objects  of   rolling  are  :     («)   to  crush  clods, 

(b)  to   smootlien  the    gi'ound    for    the   seed-bed, 

(c)  to  hasten  germination  of  seeds,  (d)  to  com- 
pact and  solidify  soils  which  are  otherwise  too 
loose  and  open,  (e)  to  put  the  land  in  such 
condition  that  other  tools  can  act  efficiently, 
(/)  to  facilitate  the  marking- out  of  land. 

103.  By  compacting  the  surface  soil,  the 
roller  re-establishes  the  capillary  connection  be- 
tween the  under- soil  and  the  air :  that  is,  it 
destroys  the  earth -mulch.  In  its  passage  up- 
wards, the  soil  moisture  supplies  the  seeds  with 
water ;  and  the  particles  of  the  soil  are  in 
intimate  contact  with  the  seeds,  and,  therefore, 
with  the  soil  moisture.  If  the  surface  of  rolled 
lands  is  moister  than  loose -tilled  lands,  there- 
fore, it  is  because  the  moisture  is  passing  off  into 
the  air  and  is  being  lost. 

104.  The  rolling  of  lands,  then,  sacrifices 
soil  moisture.  The  rolled  or  compacted  surface 
should  not  be  allowed  to  remain,  but  the  earth- 
mulch  should  be  quickly  restored,  to  prevent 
evaporation,  particularly  in  dry  weather.  TVhen 
the  object  of  rolling  is  to  hasten  germination, 
however,  the   surface   cannot   be  tilled  at  once  ; 


72  THE     PRINCIPLES     OF     AGRICrLTURE 

but  if  the  seed  is  in  rows  or  hills,  as  maize  or 
garden  vegetables,  tillage  should  begin  as  soon 
as  the  plants  have  appeared. 

SUGGESTIOyS    ox   CHAPTEE  IV 

84a.  Tillage  is  a  specific  or  special  word,  and  is  much  better 
than  the  more  general  word  culture,  when  one  is  speaking  of  the 
stirring  of  the  soil.  The  culture  of  a  crop  properly  comprises 
tillage,  pruning,  fertilizing,  and  other  good  care. 

8.5a.  For  the  origin  of  the  word  inter-tillage,  see  foot-note  in 
Roberts'  "Fertility  of  the  Land,"  p.  69. 

88a.  It  should  be  observed  that  surface  tillage  saves  moisture 
by  preventing  evaporation,  not,  as  commonly  supposed,  by  caus- 
ing the  soil  to  absorb  moisture  from  the  atmosphere.  When 
moisture  is  most  needed,  is  the  season  in  which  the  air  is  dryer 
than  the  soil. 

89a.  To  illustrate  the  importance  of  air,  select  a  thrifty 
plant,  other  than  aquatic  plant,  growing  in  a  florist's  pot,  and 
exclude  all  the  air  by  keeping  the  soil  saturated  with  water,  or 
even  by  keeping  the  bottom  of  the  plant  standing  deep  in  water, 
and  note  the  checking  of  growth,  and,  in  time,  the  decline  of  the 
plant.  The  remarks  on  draining  (65,  78)  show  how  undrained 
soils  are  often  satnrated  with  water  ;  and  no  matter  how  much 
raw  material  for  plant-food  may  exist  in  such  a  soil,  it  is  un- 
availalile  to  the  plant.  The  reader  can  now  guess  why  crops  are 
poor  and  yellow  on  fiat  lands  in  wet  seasons.  On  the  importance 
of  air  in  soils,  read  Chapter  ix.  of  King's  ''Soil." 

896.  On  the  effects  and  necessity  of  tillage,  read  Chapter  iii. 
in  Roberts'  "Fertility  of  the  Land,"  and  Chapter  xii.  in  King's 
"  Soil."  A  most  interesting  diversion  in  this  connection  is  a 
perusal  of  Jethro  Tull's  famous  book  on  ''Horse -Hoeing  Hus- 
bandry" (53c).  Copies  of  Cobbett's  edition  may  frequently  be 
found  in  antiquarian  book  stores. 

91a.    The  trench  left  by  the  plow  is   a   furrow.      The    earth 


-"^T-m 


-  .J.  ^ 


A 


<4  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF     AGRICULTURE 

whicli  is  turned  out  of  the  fmrow  is  a  furrow -slice.  In  common 
speech,  however,  the  word  furrow  is  often  used  for  the  furrow- 
slice  . 

91b.  The  accompanying  pictures,  adapted  from  Roberts' 
"Fertility  of  the  Land,"  illustrate  different  types  of  plow-work. 
Fig.  19  shows  the  furrow-slice  completely  inverted.  This  kind  of 
plowing  looks  well,  but  it  is  not  desirable  unless  the  object  is  to 
bury  weeds  or  a   green -crop.     The  furrow- slices  are  not  broken 


Fig.  23.    A  subsoil  pjo-w. 


Fig.  24.     A  smoothing  harrow. 


and  pulverized,  and  they  are  in  such  position  that  the  harrow 
cannot  tear  them  to  pieces.  Fig.  20  represents  work  which  is 
better,  for  most  conditions,  although  the  slices  are  not  pulverized. 
Fig.  21  shows  ideal  plowing. 

91c.  The  ideal  plow  for  general  farm  work,  in  Roberts' 
opinion,  is  shown  in  Fig.  22.  Observe  the  "quick"  or  sharp 
curve  of  the  moldboard.  For  an  excellent  sketch  of  the  develop- 
ment of  the  plow,  consult  Chapter  ii.  of  Roberts'  "'Fertility  of 
the  Land." 

93a.  About  12  to  20  per  cent  of  moisture  in  the  soil  is  the 
ideal  condition  for  most  plants.  Let  the  pupil  figure  out  what  the 
percentage  will  be  after  a  rainfall  of  one  inch  on  soils  that  are 
four  inches  deep  and  eight  inches  deep.  Consult  Roberts,  ''Fer- 
tility of  the  Land,"  pp.  77  to  79. 

94<j.  By  hard-pan  is  meant  very  hard  and  more  or  less 
impervious  subsoil.  Some  subsoils  are  loose  ;  others  are  so  hard 
as  to  prevent  the  downward  movement  of  water  and  roots  (79a). 


Fig.  25.     The  loose  mulch 
on  forest  soils. 


Fig.  26.     The  soil-mulch 
on  tilled  lands. 


Pig-  27.    A  home-made  planker. 


Pig.  28.  Showing  the  effect 
of  the  roller  in  compacting 
the  surface  layer. 


Pig.  29.  Showing  how  the 
soil-mulch  should  be  re- 
stored by  tillage  after  the 
roller  has  been  used. 


/6  THE    PEINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

97a.  The  subsoil  plow  does  not  turn  a  furrow  (Fig.  23).  It 
is  drawn  by  an  extra  team,  wliicli  follows  the  ordinary  plowing. 

99a.  A  useful  tool  for  making  and  maintaining  the  soil-muleh 
is  the  smoothing  harrow  shown  in  Fig.  24.  On  hard  lands, 
however,  heavier  and  more  vigorous  tools  must  be  used. 

996.  Observe  how  moist  the  soil  is  in  forests,  even  in  dry 
times.  This  condition  is  due  partly  to  the  forest  shade,  but 
perhaps  chiefly  to  the  mulch  of  leaves  on  the  ground  (Fig.  25). 

101a.  Some  farmers  are  always  asking  how  to  kill  weeds,  as 
if  this  were  the  chief  end  of  farming.  But  good  farmers  seldom 
worry  about  weeds,  because  that  management  of  the  farm  which 
makes  land  the  most  productive  is  also  the  one  which  prevents 
weeds  from  gaining  a  foothold.  But  there  are  some  cases,  as 
we  shall  find  in  the  next  chapter,  in  which  weeds  may  be 
allowed  to  grow  with  profit. 

102a.  A  planker  or  float  is  shown  in  Fig.  27.  This  is  a 
home-made  device.  In  some  parts  of  the  country  it  is  called  a 
slicker  ;  and  Lq  the  "West  it  is  known  as  a  drag.  In  the  East,  the 
word  drag  is  synonymous  with  harrow. 

104a.  To  determine  when  and  how  much  to  roll  land,  is  one 
of  the  most  difficult  of  agricultural  operations.  This  is  because 
the  good  effects  are  so  often  followed  by  the  ill  effects  of  loss 
of  moisture  and  of  puddling  of  hard  lands  when  heavy  rains 
follow.  Whenever  the  object  of  rolling  is  to  compact  loose 
lands  or  merely  to  crush  the  clods,  the  work  should  be  quickly 
followed  by  the  harrow  or  cultivator.     Compare  Figs.  28  and  29. 


Chaptek  V 

ENRICHING    THE    SOIL— FARM   RESOURCES 

1.    What  Farm  Resources  Are 

105.  The  real  fertility  of  the  land  is  its 
power  to  produce  crops.  It  is  sometimes  said 
to  be  the  richness  of  the  soil  in  elements  of 
plant- food ;  but  soils  with  much  plant- food 
may  still  be  unproductive.  Fertility  is  pro- 
ductive power.  It  is  the  result  of  good  physi- 
cal condition  and  an  abundance  of  available 
plant -food. 

106.  We  have  found  (in  Chapters  ii.,  iii. 
and  iv.)  that  the  first  step  towards  increasing 
the  productiveness  of  soil  is  to  improve  its 
physical  texture.  This  improvement  is  accom- 
plished both  by  mechanical  means,— as  tillage 
and  drainage,— and  ])y  the  addition  of  humus. 
The  humus  results  from  the  application  or  incor- 
poration of  organic  matter. 

107.  We  have  seen  (34)  that  humus  is 
supplied,  in  practice,  by  cropping, — that  is,  by 
vegetable  matter  left  on  the  ground  after  the 
crop    is    removed,    or    by   crops   plowed   under; 

(77) 


78  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

and   by  stable  manures    and   other  direct   appli- 
cations. 

2.   Cropping  Besources 

2a.   The  Jiinds  of  greey\ -manures 

108.  The  stubbles  of  gi'ain,  clover,  gi-ass  and 
sowed  corn  add  considerable  humus  to  the 
soil,  and  there  is  also  much  vegetable  fiber 
left  in  the  ground  in  the  roots  ;  and  the  refuse 
left  from  potatoes  and  garden  crops  is  often 
important.  Sometimes  the  stubble  and  roots 
are  nearly  as  valuable  for  ameliorating  the 
soil  as  the  part  which  is  removed  from  the 
land.  This  is  especially  true  in  clover,  par- 
ticularly if  it  is  not  cut  close  to  the  ground. 
Roberts  reports  that  a  second-gi'owth  of  clover, 
two  years  from  seeding,  gave  5,417  pounds  per 
acre  of  top  and  2,368  pounds  of  roots  in  the 
upper  eight  inches  of  soil ;  and  the  roots  usu- 
ally extend  to  three  or  four  times  that  depth. 

109.  Humus  is  often  secured  by  gi'owing 
crops  for  that  particular  pm'pose ;  that  is,  by 
the  practice  of  gi-een- manuring.  Green -manure 
crops  are  of  three  categories :  {a)  regular  or 
full- season  crops,  which  occupy  the  land  for 
one  or  more  seasons  before  they  are  plowed 
under,  or  until  they  have  reached  nearly  or 
quite  their  full  gi'owth  ;  {h)  catch -crops,  which 
are  grown  in  the  seasons  between  other  crops; 


ENRICHING    THE      SOIL — FARM    RESOURCES  79 

(g)  cover-crops,  which  are  sown  late  in  the 
season  for  the  purpose  of  protecting  the  soil 
during  winter  as  well   as  for  green -manuring. 

110.  Green -manuring  crops  may  be  again 
divided  into  those  which  gather  nitrogen  and 
those  which  do  not, — or  those  which  have  the 
power  of  using  the  nitrogen  (see  Chapter  vi.) 
of  the  ah',  and  those  which  obtain  all  their 
nitrogen  directly  from  the  soil.  The  nitrogen - 
gatherers  leave  their  nitrogen  in  the  soil,  when 
they  decay,  for  the  use  of  other  plants.  The 
nitrogen -gatherers  are  the  leguminous  plants, 
or  those  which  belong  to  the  pea  family,  as 
all  kinds  of  peas  and  beans,  clovers,  alfalfa, 
vetch.  The  other  class,  or  nitrogen -consumers, 
comprises  all  other  plants  used  for  gi-een- ma- 
nuring, as  rye,  oats,  rape,  mustard,  buckwheat, 
maize. 

111.  In  general,  the  best  green -manure  crops 
are  the  legumes, — red  clover  for  the  North, 
alfalfa  for  dry  regions,  cow -peas  and  Japan 
clover  for  the  South.  With  the  exception  of 
the  cow-peas,  these  crops  require  one  or  more 
seasons  for  full  development,  and,  therefore, 
cannot   be   used   in    intensive    farming. 

2b.   The  management  of  green -tnanures 

112.  The  ideal  green -manuring  is  that  which 
is    a    part    of    a    regular    rotation, — the    green- 


80  THE    PRINCIPLES     OF     AGRICULTURE 

manure  crop,  or  the  stubble  or  sod,  occurring 
regularly  once  every  few  years,  in  alternation 
with  wheat,  potatoes  and  other  staple  crops. 
This,  however,  is  possible  only  with  general  or 
mixed  husbandry  (4a).  In  market- gardening, 
and  other  intensive  farming,  catch -crops  are 
often  used.  In  fruit-growing,  cover-crops  are 
frequently  used. 

113.  But  even  in  intensive  farming,  the  land 
sometimes  becomes  unproductive  from  too  con- 
tinuous cropping  with  one  thing,  and  the  too 
persistent  use  of  one  kind  of  fertilizer.  It  is 
then  often  "rested"  by  seeding  it  to  clover  ;  but 
the  good  effects  are  not  the  result  of  a  rest,  but 
of  rotation  or  change  of  crop. 

114.  It  is  necessary  to  distinguish  between 
the  effects  of  green- crops  in  improving  soil 
textm'e  and  their  effects  in  enriching  the  soil ; 
for  soils  which  may  need  improving  in  texture 
may  not  need  enriching.  In  fruit-growing  this 
is  often  true  ;  and  the  heavy  addition  of  nitro- 
gen (which  conduces  to  growth  of  wood)  may 
cause  the  plants  to  grow  too  heavily  and  to 
bear  little,  and  to  be  too  susceptible  to  dis- 
ease and  to  cold.  In  such  cases,  the  nitrogen- 
consumers  are  the  better  crops.  One  must  be 
careful  not  to  induce  an  over-growth  in  grapes, 
peaches,  apricots,  and  pears. 

115.  On   hard    and   poor    lands,    it    is    often 


ENRICHING    THE      SOIL — FARM    RESOURCES  81 

difficult  to  secure  a  "catch"  of  clover.  Iii  such 
cases,  it  is  well  to  begin  with  fall -sown  rye  or 
field  peas.  When  the  soil  has  become  mellow, 
clover  may  be  successful. 

116.  Cover- crops  are  used  mostly  in  fruit 
plantations.  They  are  sown  in  midsummer,  or 
later,  after  tillage  is  completed, — for  tillage  should 
cease  early,  in  order  that  the  fruit  plants  will 
not  gi'ow  too  heavily  and  too  late.  The  cover 
is  plowed  under  early  the  following  spring 
(74rt)-  The  cover  checks  the  growth  of  the 
fruit  i^lants,  prevents  the  land  from  washing 
and  puddling,  holds  the  rainfall  until  it  can 
soak  into  the  soil,  causes  the  soil  to  dry  out 
early  in    spring,   lessens    injury  from    frost. 

117.  Weeds  often  make  good  cover- crops. 
The  chief  difficulty  is  that  they  cannot  be 
relied  upon  to  appear  when  and  where  and  in 
the  quantity  wanted,  and  some  kinds  may  be 
difficult   to    eradicate   (lOla). 

3.  Direct  Applications 
3a.  Stable  manures 

118.  The  best  direct  application  which  the 
farmer  can  make  to  his  land,  from  his  home 
resom*ces,  is  stable  manure.  It  supplies  both 
humus    and   plant -food. 


82  THE     PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

119.  The  value  of  manure  depends  upon 
(a)  the  kind  of  animal  from  which  it  is  made, 
(6)  the  feed  which  the  animal  receives,  (c) 
the  amount  of  bedding  or  litter  which  it  con- 
tains, (d)  the  way  in  which  it  is  kept  or 
housed. 

120.  Some  of  the  most  valuable  constituents 
of  manure  are  soluble,  and  are,  therefore, 
removed  by  water.  Consequently,  manures 
should  be  housed  to  protect  them  from  rain. 
A  covered  barn -yard  is  the  ideal  place  in 
which  to  keep  manures,  for  they  are  not  only 
protected  from  weather,  but,  if  the  manure 
contains  enough  straw  or  litter,  it  makes  an 
agreeable  bed  upon  which  stock  may  tramp, 
and  it  absorbs  the  liquids  ;  and  if  it  is  spread 
in  the  yard  as  it  is  made  and  well  tramped  by 
stock,  its  tendency  to  heat  is  reduced.  In  six 
months'  exposure  to  weather,  manui-es  usually 
lose  more  than  half  of  thek  available  plant -food. 

121.  The  more  completely  rotted  the  ma- 
nure, the  sooner  does  it  become  thoroughly 
incorporated  with  the  soil  ;  and  the  decay  of 
the  coarse  parts  renders  theii'  plant -food  more 
available.  If  the  rotting  proceeds  under  cover 
or  in  a  compost  pile  (S-ia,  Fig.  5),  there  should 
be  little  loss  of  plant -food  by  leaching. 

122.  If  manure  cannot  be  sheltered,  it 
should     be     sjjread     on    the     fields    as    fast    as 


ENRICHING    THE     SOIL  — FARM    RESOURCES  83 

made.  There  is  practically  no  loss  of  plant- 
food  from  evaporation,  and  the  part  which 
leaches  is  caught  by  the  soil.  Loose  or  strawy 
manure  which  lies  too  long  on  the  ground, 
however,  may  become  so  dry  that  it  does  not 
quickly  decay  when  plowed  under ;  if  applied 
very  thick,  it  prevents  heavy  soils  from  drying 
out,  and  thereby  delays  spring  work. 

36.   Other  dressings 

123.  Muck  is  often  useful  as  a  source  of 
humus,  but  it  generally  contains  little  directly 
available  plant -food.  It  is  generally  improved 
if  dug  and  allowed  to  weather  some  time  be- 
fore it  is  put  on  the  land.  Dry  muck  is  very 
useful  in  stables  and  covered  barn -yards  to 
absorb  the  liquids  ;  and  its  value  as  a  dress- 
ing for  the  land  is  thereby  increased. 

124.  Peat,  when  decomposed  and  soil -like, 
becomes  muck.  Peat,  therefore,  is  less  valuable 
than  muck  as  a  dressing  until  it  has  been 
thoroughly  broken  up  and  decomposed  by 
weathering   or   composting. 

125.  Marl  is  usually  not  rich  in  available 
plant-food,  but,  like  muck,  it  may  be  valuable 
to  improve  the  physical  condition  of  the  soil. 
But  only  in  exceptional  cases  is  it  worth  haul- 
ing great  distances. 

126.  Such      materials     as     sawdust,     straw, 


84  THE    PEENCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

leaves,  pomace,  are  generally  more  valuable 
for  the  improving  of  the  textm'e  of  the  soil 
than  for  the  dii'ect  addition  of  plant -food.  If 
the  soil  is  loose,  dry  and  leachy,  or  if  it  is 
very  hard,  compact  and  retentive,  these  ma- 
terials may  benefit  it.  To  determine  the  value 
of  such  materials  in  plant -food,  one  must  con- 
sult tables  of  theu-  comj^osition  in  books  ;  and 
the  more  thoroughly  they  are  rotted,  the  more 
available   are  their  constituents. 


SUGGESTIOXS    OX   CHAPTER    V 

IO80.  "The  proportion  of  roots  to  tops  [in  clovers]  varies 
widely.  The  medium  red  clover,  one  year  from  seeding,  gives 
a  much  larger  proportion  of  roots  to  tops  than  clover  two  years 
from  seeding.  Red  clover  which  produces  two  tons  per  acre 
may  be  expected  to  furnish  potentially  to  the  soil,  after  the 
first  cutting,  in  roots  and  stubble,  40  to  60  pounds  of  nitrogen, 
20  to  25  pounds  of  phosphoric  acid,  and  30  to  50  pounds  of 
potash.  Thirty  bushels  of  wheat  *  *  *  and  2,700  pounds 
of  straw,  would  remove  approximately  46  pounds  of  nitrogen, 
20  pounds  of  phosphoric  acid,  and  26  pounds  of  potash." — 
Roberts,  ^^ Fertility  of  the  Land,"  345. 

109o.  Accessible  discussions  of  green -manuring  are  to  be 
found  in  Chap,  xiv.,  "Fertility  of  the  Land;"  pp.  117-123,  Voor- 
hees'  "Fertilizers."  Cover-crops  in  relation  to  fruit-culture  are 
discussed  in  pp.  184-202  of  Bailey's  "Principles  of  Fruit-Grow- 
ing,"  and  in  other  books  and  recent  bulletins. 

Ilia.  Intensive  farming  is  "high -culture"  farming.  It  is 
farming  on  a  comparatively  small  scale,  when  the  land  is  kept 
constantly  in  productive  crop,  with  the  best  of  tillage,  and  the 
free  use  of  manures  and  fertilizers.     The  land  is  forced  to  its 


Fig.  30.     A  covered  barn-yard,  in  which  manure  is  saved  and  the  stock 
protected. 


FiK.  31.  A  common  type  of  barn-yard.  The  stains  on  the  bam  show  where  the 
manure  was  baptized  from  the  eaves  :  and  the  mud-puddle  shows  where 
much  of  the  fertility  has  gone. 


86 


THE    PBLN'CIPLES     OF    AGRICULTURE 


utmost  capacity.  Market -gardening  and  forcing-house  culture 
are  examples. 

lllfe.  Extensive  farming  is  general  husbandry,  especially 
when  done  on  a  lai^e  scale  and  without  forceful  methods  of 
tillage  and  cropping.  Grain -farming  and  stock-raising  are  ex- 
amples. 

120a.  A  covered  barn-yard  is  shown  in  Fig.  30.  This  is  a 
basement  under  the  farm  bam  at  Cornell  University.  This 
affords  a  protected  place  in  which  the  stock  may  exercise  in 
cold  weather  :   and  if  the   cattle   are  dehorned,   thev  remain  to- 


Pie.  32.     A  handy  a  r.. 

(behind  which   is  _  -^  .i        ;  i       ^.        -.tI 
cement  bottom,  for  the  storage  of  the  manure. 


:rle-raeks,   a  manure   trough 
at  the  rear,  with  a  hollowed 


gether  peaceably.  Such  an  area  not  only  saves  the  manure,  but 
it  adds  to  the  welfare  and  value  of  the  stock.  Compare  this 
with  the  commoner  type  of  yard,  as  shown  in  Fig.  31,  A 
handy  and  efficient  arrangement  for  the  saving  of  manure  is 
shown  in  Fig.  32.  For  general  discussions  on  farm  mantires 
and  methods  of  saving  and  handling  them,  consult  Roberts, 
''Fertility  of  the  Land,"  Chapters  vi.,  vii.,  viii.,  ix. 

126a.  Muck,  marl,  and  other  materials  of  this  class  are 
considered  in  Voorhees"  "Fertilizers."  Chapter  vi.,  and  in  Roberts' 
^Fertility.  Chapter  xiii. ;"  and  the  appendix  to  the  latter  work  has 
full  tables  of  the  fertilizer  constituents  of  verv  manv  substances. 


Chapter  VI 

ENRICHING   THE    SOIL— COMMERCIAL 
RESOURCES 

G.  W.  OAVANAUOH 

1.     The   Elements   in    the    Soil 

127.  Chemically,  a  fertile  soil  is  one  con- 
taining an  abundance  of  available  plant -food. 
The  substances  which  are  necessary  for  the 
growth  and  welfare  of  plants  are  called  plant- 
foods.  There  are  about  ten  essential  elements 
of  plant- food.  Six  of  these  are  derived  from 
the  mineral  part  of  the  soil, — phosphorus 
sulfur,  iron,  calcium,  magnesium  and  potas- 
sium. Nitrogen  is  contained  in  the  humus. 
Water  supplies  the  hydrogen  and  oxygen 
to  the  roots.  Carbon  comes  from  the  air.  For- 
tunately, the  greater  part  of  the  plant- food  ele- 
ments of  the  soil  always  exist  in  quantities  more 
than  suflBcient  to  supply  any  possible  need  of 
the  plants. 

128.  Three  of   these    elements    are  often    de- 
ficient in  the  soil  ;    or,  if  present,  they  may  not 

(87) 


88  THE    PRINCIPLES     OF    AGBICL'LTI'EE 

be  in  condition  to  be  used  by  the  plant.  These 
are  nitrogen,  phosphorus,  and  potassium.  A 
fourth  plant-food  is  also  sometimes  deficient, — 
calcium.  These  four  substances,  therefore,  are 
the  ones  which  the  farmer  needs  to  consider 
when  fertilizing  the  land. 

129.  Before  the  plant  can  use  any  of  these 
elements  of  plant -food  in  the  soil,  they  must 
become  dissolved  in  the  soil  water,  which  is 
absorbed  by  roots. 

130.  While  all  plants  need  certain  elements 
for  their  growth,  they  cannot  use  the  elements 
in  their  elemental  or  uncombined  forms.  In 
fact,  the  elements  as  such  do  not  exist  in  the 
soil.  They  are  united  with  each  other  in  com- 
pounds, and  it  is  by  absorbing  the  compounds 
that  the  plants  obtain  the  necessary  elements. 
Phosphorus  is  essential  to  the  life  of  plants, 
but  it  is  never  used  by  them  in  the  form  of 
elemental  phosphorus.  It  is  always  in  some 
compound,  as  phosphoric  acid  or  a  phosphate. 

131.  When  the  compounds  exist  in  such 
condition  as  to  be  readily  absorbed  by  the 
roots,  the  soil  is  said  to  contain  available 
plant -food.  Often  there  is  sufficient  plant -food 
present,  but  not  in  condition  to  be  taken  up 
by  the  plants.  It  is  then  said  to  be  unavail- 
able, or  to  be  locked  up.  Availability  is  deter- 
mined  by  two  factors :    by  the   substance   being 


ENRICHING    SOIL— COMMERCIAL    RESOURCES  89 

soluble  in  soil  water;    by  its  being  of  such  com- 
position that  the  plant  will  use  it. 

132.  One  problem  for  the  agriculturist  is  to 
secure  available  plant -food,  and  to  determine 
whether  it  is  better  to  unlock  the  plant- food 
in  the  soil  by  means  of  tillage,  or  to  supply 
the  elements  in  some  manure  or  fertilizer. 

133.  Barn  manures  are  not  always  to  be  had, 
and  they  are  variable  in  composition.  It  is  often 
advisable,  therefore,  to  substitute  commercial  or 
concentrated  fertilizers,  in  which  the  constituents 
are  of  known  amounts  and  often  readily  avail- 
able. Barn  manures  are  bulky.  Even  manure 
of  cattle  from  a  covered  yard  contains  as 
high  as  70  or  75  per  cent  of  water,  and  usu- 
ally less  than  1  per  cent  of  nitrogen,  phos- 
phoric acid  or  potash.  If  it  were  not  for  its 
influence  in  improving  the  physical  effects  of  the 
soil,  stable  manure  would  have  comparatively 
little  value. 

2.  Nitrogen 

134.  Nitrogen  is  the  most  important  element 
which  the  farmer  adds  to  his  soil.  It  comprises 
part  of  all  green  and  woody  parts  of  plants. 
It  seems  to  be  the  element  most  intimately 
associated  with  rapid  growth  in  plants.  Plants 
that  feed   excessively  on   nitrogen  tend   to   pro- 


90  THE    PRDsCIPLES    OF    AGRICCX.TURE 

duce  large  leaves  and  stalks,  while  the  hardi- 
ness may  suffer.  On  the  other  hand,  insuf- 
ficient nitrogen  is  almost  certain  to  result  in 
dwarfing  and  loss  of  vitality.  It  must  receive 
attention,  also,  because  one  form,  the  nitrate, 
tends  to  leach  from  the  soil. 

135.  In  a  pure  or  elemental  state,  nitrogen 
is  an  invisible  gas.  It  comprises  four-fifths 
of  the  atmosphere.  And  yet,  with  this  vast 
amount  about  us,  it  is  the  most  expensive  ele- 
ment of  plant -food.  The  nitrogen  of  the  air 
can  not  be  used  by  the  great  majority  of  plants, 
because  it  is  in  what  is  known  as  a  free  or  un- 
combined  state.  The  sources  of  nitrogen  for 
plants  are  ammonia,  nitrates,  or  in  some 
compound  formed  by  animals  or  plants  (that 
is,  in  some  organic   form). 

136.  If  the  gas  nitrogen  be  combined  with 
the  gas  hydrogen,  there  will  be  formed  am- 
monia (N  Hs) .  From  this  the  plants  can 
derive,  indirectly,  their  supply  of  nitrogen. 
Another  compound  of  nitrogen  is  called  nitric 
acid,  which  is  composed  of  nitrogen,  hydrogen, 
and  oxygen  (HXO3).  When  some  mineral 
element  takes  the  place  of  the  hydrogen  in 
this  combination,  the  compound  is  called  a 
nitrate  :  as  Xa  N  O3,  nitrate  of  soda  ;  K  N  O3, 
nitrate  of  potash,  or  saltpetre.  Both  ammonia 
and    nitrates    are    found    in    the    soil    in    small 


ENRICHING    SOIL — COMMERCIAL    RESOURCES  91 

quantities,  but  only  in  a  fertile  soil  in   sufficient 
amounts    to    supply  the  plant  with  nitrogen. 

137.  Humus  is  the  great  storehouse  of 
nitrogen.  Humus  does  not  dissolve  in  water, 
and  so  serves  as  a  means  of  retaining  the 
nitrogen  against  leaching.  But  if  the  nitrogen 
remained  always  in  the  humus,  it  would  not 
be  available  to  plants,  since  to  be  absorbed  it 
must  dissolve  in  the  soil -water.  Fortunately 
there  is  a  process  whereby  the  nitrogen  in  the 
insoluble  humus  is  made  to  be  available.  This 
process  is  the  work  of  germs  or  micro-organ- 
isms (35,  35a).  These  germs  are  of  several 
kinds.  One  kind  works  upon  the  humus  and 
changes  its  nitrogen  into  ammonia,  and  other 
kinds  change  the  ammonia  into  nitric  acid. 
This  process  of  changing  nitrogen  into  the 
form  of  nitric  acid  or  nitrate  is  called  nitri- 
fication. It  is  probable  that  nitrogen  enters 
the  plant  chiefly  in  form  of  nitrate,  so  that 
all  other  forms  of  nitrogen  must  undergo  nitri- 
fication, or  be  nitrified,  before  they  are  of  use. 
Since  tillage  promotes  the  activities  of  the  micro- 
organisms (35,  52,  89),  it  thereby  increases  the 
supply  of  available  nitrogen. 

138.  It  has  been  stated  (135)  that  the  great 
quantity  of  nitrogen  in  the  atmosphere  is  not 
available  to  most  plants,  because  it  is  not  in 
a  combined    state.      There    are    certain    plants, 


92  THE     PRINCIPLES     OF     AGRICULTUKE 

however,  which  have  the  power  of  drawmg 
upon  this  supply  for  their  nitrogen.  They  are 
the  leguminous  plants,  and  include  the  clovers, 
peas  and  beans  (110).  These  plants  have  knobs 
or  nodules  growing  upon  their  roots.  These 
nodules  are  the  homes  of  germs;  and  these 
germs  seize  upon  the  nitrogen  of  the  air  and 
turn  it  over  to  the  plant.  This  process  is 
known  as  the  fixation  of  nitrogen.  Then  if 
these  crops  are  plowed  under  they  not  only 
add  humus  from  theu'  vegeiable  substance, 
but  nitrogen  which  has  been  gathered  from 
the   ail*. 

139.  The  nitrogen  added  in  green -crops  or 
humus  must  go  through  the  process  of  nitri- 
fication before  it  is  available  to  the  plant. 
Sometimes  this  process  does  not  furnish  nitric 
acid  fast  enough  to  suj^ply  rapidly  gi'owing 
plants,  and  then  a  form  of  available  nitrogen 
may  be  added  direct.  This  can  be  done  by 
using  nitrate  of  soda  or  sulfate  of  ammonia. 
The  former  is  mined  in  Chile  ;  the  latter  is  a 
substance  obtained  from  gas  works.  The  am- 
monia formed  from  the  nitrogen  that  was  in  the 
coal  or  wood  is  caught  in  sulfuric  acid  (generally 
known  as*  oil  of  vitriol).  These  two  substances, 
together  with  dried  blood  from  the  slaughter 
houses,  constitute  the  best  commercial  sources 
of  nitrogren. 


ENRICHING     SOIL — COMMERCIAL    RESOURCES  93 

3.  Phosphoric  Acid 

140.  Phosphoric  acid  is,  next  to  nitrogen,  the 
most  important  plant -food  to  be  applied  to 
land,  and  of  the  mineral  constituents  it  is  the 
most  important.  It  is  a  constituent  of  all  soils, 
though  the  amount  may  be  variable.  It  is  par- 
ticularly needed  to  insure  hardiness  and  fruit- 
fulness.  Consequently  the  different  grain  crops 
are  large  users  of  phosphoric  acid.  A  liberal 
supply  of  available  phosphoric  acid  is  necessary 
to  young  plants  to  give  them  strength  and 
vigor. 

141.  As  humus  decays  or  decomposes  in  the 
soil  it  not  only  supplies  nitrogen,  but  it  also 
makes  some  of  the  phosphoric  acid  available. 
Hence  when  the  humus  diminishes  in  the  soil, 
there  is  often  a  corresponding  lack  of  available 
phosphoric  acid.  Barn  manures  make  available 
a  considerable  quantity  of  phosphoric  acid.  Soils 
which  contain  a  fair  supply  of  humus  do  not 
necessarily  have  enough  of  phosphoric  acid. 
To  such  soils  phosphoric  acid  may  be  supplied 
in  an  available  form  in  acid  phosphates. 

142.  Pure  phosphoric  acid  (P2O5) ,  however,  is 
not  used  directly  as  a  plant -food,  but  only  when 
it  is  combined  with  some  other  substance,  as 
lime.  One  of  the  chief  sources  of  phosphoric 
acid    is    bone,   in   which    it   is   found   combined 


94  THE     PRINCIPLES     OF    AGRICULTURE 

with  lime.  The  animals  obtained  the  phosphoric 
acid  from  the  plants  they  ate,  which  in  their 
turn  secured  it  from  the  soil.  Another  great 
source  are  the  deposits  of  phosphatic  rocks  in 
the  Carolinas,  Florida  and  Tennessee.  In  these 
rocks  the  phosphoric  acid  and  lime  are  com- 
bined in  the  same  way  as  in  bones. 

143.  Bones  and  phosphoric  rocks  do  not  dis- 
solve in  water,  and  consequently  the  phosphoric 
acid  they  contain  is  not  easily  absorbed  by 
roots.  These  materials,  therefore,  are  com- 
monly treated  with  acid,  to  make  the  phos- 
phoric acid  soluble ;  and  the  material  is  then 
known  as   an  acid  phosphate. 

144.  In  bones,  one  part  of  phosphoric  acid 
(P2O5)  is  combined  with  three  parts  of  lime 
(CaO),  and   can    be    expressed   as    follows: 

Lime  ^  CaO  ^ 

Lime  V  Phosphoric  acid ;    or,  CaO  {■  P2O5 
Lime)  CaO ) 

This  substance  is  tri-  (or  three)  calcic  phos- 
phate, and  is  insoluble.  When  sulfuric  acid  (or 
oil  of  vitriol)  and  water  are  brought  in  con- 
tact with  the  bones,  part  of  the  lime  leaves 
the  phosphoric  acid,  and  its  place  is  taken  by 
water.  If  one  part  of  the  lime  is  united  with 
the  sulfuric  acid,  then  there  results  a  sub- 
stance which  can  be  written  thus  : 


ENRICHING    SOIL— COiLMERCIAL    RESOURCES  95 

Water")  HiO^ 

Lime    C  Phosphoric  acid;  or,  CaO  V  P2O5 
Lime  j  CaO  ) 

This  is  di-  (or  twoj  calcic  phosphate.  This  is 
insohible  in  rain-water,  but  becomes  sohil)lp  in 
the  soil-water. 

145.  If  two  parts  of  the  lime  be  united  with 
sulfuric  acid  and  then-  places  be  taken  by  water, 
there  remains : 

Water")  HoO^^ 

Water  y  Phosphoric  acid ;  or,  HoO  v  P2O5 
Lime    )  CaO  ) 

This  is  mono-  (or  one)  calcic  phosphate.  This 
is  readily  soluble  in  soil  water,  but  in  the  soil  it 
tends  to  become  insoluble,  or  to  revert  to  the 
dicalcic  form  (and  is  then  said  to  be  "reverted"), 
and  some  of  it  may  eventually  become  tricalcic 
and  unavailable.  The  lime  that  is  removed  by 
the  sulfuric  acid  unites  with  the  sulfmic  acid  to 
form  calcium  sulfate  ;  that  is,  plaster  or  g^'psum 
(CaS04).  The  dicalcic  and  monocalcic  are  the 
forms  that  are  known  as  acid  phosphate,  and 
sold  in  commercial  fertilizers. 


4.  Potash  {potassium  oxide,  KoO) 

146.  Next  to  phosphoric  acid,  potash  is  the 
most  important  mineral  plant -food.  It  is  placed 
after    phosphoric    acid    in     importance    not    be- 


96  THE     PRINCIPLES     OF     AGRICULTURE 

cause  plants  can  better  do  without  it,  but 
because  it  is  usually  more  abundant  in  soils. 
Potash  has  an  important  office  in  the  produc- 
tion of  firm,  woody  tissue  and  of  starch,  and 
it  is  thought  to  be  paiiicularly  needed  by  fruit- 
plants,  potatoes,  and  root  crops.  It  is  gen- 
erally deficient  in  sandy  and  peaty  soils. 

147.  Like  phosphoric  acid,  potash  becomes 
available  with  a  liberal  supply  of  humus  and 
by  good  tillage  ;  and  the  potash  in  barn  ma- 
nures is  soluble  and  valuable.  Whenever  wood 
ashes  can  be  cheaply  obtained  they  form  a  valu- 
able source  of  potash,  for  the  potash  taken 
from  the  soil  by  the  trees  remains  in  the  ashes 
when  the  wood  is   burned. 

148.  Potash  is  found  in  great  deposits  in 
Germany,  very  much  as  common  salt  is  found 
in  the  United  States.  There  it  is  mined  and 
sold.  It  can  be  bought  in  the  form  known  as 
the  muriate  of  potash,  or  more  properly  potas- 
sium chlorid,  KCl.  Another  form  of  potash  is 
the  sulfate,  K2SO4.  The  sulfate  costs  a  little 
more  than  the  other,  because  it  is  made  from 
the  muriate.  For  general  pm-poses,  the  muri- 
ate is  recommended  over  the  sulfate  because 
it  is  cheaper ;  but  the  muriate  has  a  dele- 
terious effect  on  tobacco,  and  it  is  thought 
to  give  less  satisfactory  results  on  sugar-cane 
and    potatoes. 


KNRICHESiG    SOIL — COMMERCIAL    RESOURCES  97 

5.    Amendments 

149.  Substances  which  contain  only  traces 
of  the  important  or  available  plant -foods  often 
have  a  beneficial  effect  on  soil.  Lime  and  salt 
are  examples.  Though  they  may  not  add  to  the 
soil  any  needed  plant -food,  the  plants  are  en- 
abled by  their  presence  to  utilize  more  of  the 
plant -food  already  in  the  soil.  Such  materials 
are  known  as   amendments  (58) . 

150.  It  is  often  difficult  to  decide,  in  any 
particular  case,  just  how  an  amendment  pro- 
duces its  effect.  It  may  be  that  the  mechanical 
condition  of  the  soil  is  improved,  its  water - 
holding  capacity  increased,  its  acidity  or  sour- 
ness neutralized,  or  its  plant -food  unlocked. 

151.  Lime.  Soils  sometimes  become  sour,  and 
may  then  be  unsuitable  for  some  plants.  One 
of  the  reasons  why  plants  do  not  thrive  well  in 
sour  soils  is  that  it  is  difficult  to  obtain  sufficient 
nitrogen  in  the  form  of  nitrates.  The  germs 
which  carry  on  the  process  of  nitrification  are 
unable  to  do  their  work  in  sour  soils.  The  soil 
acid  can  be  neutralized  —  the  soil  sweetened  —  by 
applj-ing  lime  (which  is  calcium  oxide,  CaO). 

152.  Lime  may  be  applied  in  the  form  of 
water -slaked  lime,  such  as  is  obtained  by  adding 
water  to  quick -lime  till  it  crumbles,  or  by  air- 
slaked  lime.     Quick-lime  usually  gives  the  better 


98  THE     PRINCIPLES     OF    AGBICULTUBE 

results,  particularly  when  it  is  desired  to  improve 
the  texture  of  clay  soils  (58,  58a). 

153.  A  soil  may  be  tested  to  determine  if  it  is 
acid  by  placing  a  piece  of  blue  litmus  paper 
(kept  at  drug  stores)  against  the  moist  soil.  If 
the  paper  reddens  and  remains  so  after  drying,  it 
shows  the  presence  of  an  acid  in  the  soil.  It  is 
best  to  apply  the  paper  not  to  the  top  of  the  soil, 
but  to  the  side  of  a  hole  such  as  would  be  made 
by  inserting  a  spade  and  moving  it  to  and  fro. 


6.    Commercial   Fertilizers 
6a.     Vtliai  they  are 

154.  Under  the  name  of  commercial  fertilizers, 
one  can  buy  the  various  forms  of  nitrogen,  phos- 
phoric acid  and  potash.  These  elements  may  be 
purchased  singly  or  mixed  in  any  combination. 
A  fertilizer  containing  all  three  is  called  a  com- 
plete manure  or  fertilizer.  In  buying,  one  should 
be  guided  by  the  guaranteed  analysis  and  not  by 
any  particular  name  or  brand. 

155.  The  commercial  value  of  nitrogen  is 
about  three  times  that  of  either  phosphoric  acid 
or  potash,  which  are  approximately  5  cents  per 
pound.  The  prices  of  these  elements  may  vary, 
but  the  following  will  serve  as  an  illustration  of 
the  computing  of  relative  values  of  different  fer- 


ENRICHING    SOIL — COMMERCIAL    RESOURCES  99 

tilizers  (remembering  that  1  per  cent  means  one 
pound  in  a  hundred,  or  twenty  pounds  in  a  ton) : 

No.  1.     Guaranteed  Analysis 

Nitrogen 1.60  to  2.00  per  cent 

Phosphoric  acid  available  .  7.00  to  8.00  "       " 

Potash 2.00  to  3.50  "       " 

Cost  per  ton,  $29. 

Multiplying  the  lowest  figure  representing  the 
per  cent  of  the  given  element  by  20,  and  calcu- 
lating the  value  from  the  price  per  pound,  we 
have  in  No.  1  : 

Nitrogen  .  .  .1.60X20=  321bs.@15c.  =  $4  80 
Phosphoric  acid  7  X  20  =  140  lbs.@  5e.  =  7  00 
Potash    ....      2  X20=   40  lbs.®  5c.  =   2  00 


Commercial  value  per  ton $13  80 

156.    Another  example    of    computation    may 
be  taken  : 

No.  2.    Guaranteed  Analysis 

Nitrogen 3.30  to    4.00  per  cent 

Phosphoric  acid  available    .  8.00  to  10.00    "      " 

Potash 7.00  to    8.00    "      " 

Cost  per  ton,  $38. 

Its  value  is  calculated  the  same  as  No.  1: 

Nitrogen    .    .    .3.30X20=   66  lbs.@15c.  =  $9  90 

Phosphoric  acidS.OOX  20  =  160  lbs. @  5c.  =   8  00 

Potash   .    .    .    ■  7.00X20  =140  lbs. @  5c.  =    7  00 

Commercial  value $24  90 


100  THE     PRINCIPLES     OF    AGBICULTTaK 

157.  The  cheapest  fertilizer  is  the  one  in 
which  one  dollar  f>iirchase&  the  greatest  amonnt 
of  plant-food.  In  No.  1,  $29  obtained  $13.80 
worth,  which  is  at  the  rate  of  4S  cents  worth 
for  $1.  In  No.  2,  $38  bnys  $24.90  worth  of 
plant-food,  or  at  the  rate  of  65  cents  worth  for 
the  dollar.  The  difference  between  the  commer- 
cial valne,  as  calculated,  and  the  selling  price, 
is  to  cover  expenses  of  niannfacture,  bagging, 
shipping,  commission   fees,  and  profits- 

6b.  Advice  as  to  their  use 

15S.  We  have  seen  that  plants  mnst  have 
all  three  of  the  general  fertility  elements — nitro- 
gen, phosphoric  acid,  potash — in  order  to  thrive. 
It  frequently  occurs,  however,  that  the  soil  is 
rich  enough  in  one  or  two  of  them ;  and  in  that 
case,  it  is  not  necessary  to  apply  all  of  them. 

159.  K  a  liberal  apphcation  is  made  of  one 
element,  the  plant  must  use  more  of  the  other 
elements  which  are  already  in  the  soil,  in  order 
to  balance  up  its  growth.  It  may  result,  there- 
fore, that  the  addition  of  one  element  exhausts 
the  soil  of  some  other  element.  For  example, 
if  heavy  growth  is  obtaiued  by  the  addition  of 
nitrogen,  the  plant  may  need  to  draw  so 
heavily  upon  the  stores  of  available  phosphoric 
acid  as  to  deplete  the  soil  of  that  material. 


ENRICHING    SOIL— C03LMERCIAL    RESOURCES         101 

160.  Again,  uo  results  can  be  obtained  from 
the  addition  of  one  element  unless  the  other 
two  are  present  in  sufficient  quantity.  In  gen- 
eral, therefore,  it  is  safer  to  apply  complete 
fertilizers. 

161.  Yet,  in  some  cases,  it  is  unwise  to 
apply  complete  fertilizers.  This  is  particularly 
true  of  the  application  of  nitrogen.  The  growth 
may  already  be  so  hea^y  that  the  addition  of 
nitrogen  would  cause  an  overgrowth,  and  yet 
the  plants  may  need  fertilizing.  This  danger 
of  too  much  growth  is  gi'eatest  with  fruit 
plants    (lU). 

162.  If  nitrogen  conduces  especially  to  leaf 
gi'owth  (131),  then  it  must  be  the  element 
which  is  most  important  in  the  fertilizing  ol 
the  vegetables  which  are  grown  for  their  leaves 
or  succulent  stalks,  as  rhubarb,  cabbage,  let- 
tuce, spinach,  asparagus ;  and  it  is  also  very 
important  in  the  gi-owing  of  hay  and  succulent 
fodder. 

163.  Nitrogen  leaches  rapidly,  especially  if 
applied  in  the  form  of  nitrate  of  soda  or  sulfate 
of  ammonia.  It  is,  therefore,  advisable  to  ap- 
ply it  in  the  sirring ;  and  when  used  in  liberal 
amounts,  it  should  be  applied  at  intervals,  and 
not  all   at   one  time. 

161.  Phosphoric  acid  and  potash,  even  if 
soluble,  do  not  leach  badly,  as   a  rule,  because 


102  THE    PRINCIPLES     OF    AGRICULTURE 

they  tend  to  form  insoluble  compounds  with 
soil  constituents.  The  more  vegetable  matter 
a  soil  contains,  the  less  pronounced  is  the 
action  of  leaching.  As  a  rule,  commercial  ferti- 
lizers are  applied  after  the  gi-ound  is  fitted,  and 
then  harrowed  in  or  di'illed  in. 

165.  The  amounts  and  kinds  to  apply  are 
determined  by  (a)  the  analysis  of  the  material 
(that  is,  its  richness  in  plant-food),  (6)  its 
cost,  (c)  the  richness   of  the   soil  in  plant-food, 

(d)  the    tilth    or   textm-e   of   the    soil   (60,  49a), 

(e)  the  kind  of  crop,  (f)  the  kind  of  farming, 
whether  intensive  or  extensive  (111«,  1116).  It 
follows,  therefore,  that  the  mere  analysis  of 
the  soil  and  the  jjlant  cannot  determine  what 
fertilizer   it  is  most  profitable  to  use. 

166.  What  fertilizers  to  use,  and  how  to 
apply  them,  are  subjects  which  are  discussed 
in  bulletins  and  books  by  many  authors ;  but 
even  after  reading  all  the  literatm-e,  the  farmer 
must  exjDeriment  with  his  own  land  and  his  own 
crops,  to  determine  just  what  materials  are  most 
profitable  for  his  use.  In  other  words,  the  ad- 
vice as  to  fertilizers  is  more  valuable  in  teach- 
ing a  man  principles,  in  suggesting  means  of 
experimenting,  and  in  designating  the  proba- 
bilities of  any  line  of  action,  than  in  specifying 
just  what  fertilizers  one  shall  use.  An  area  on 
one    side   of    a   field    mav  be    devoted    to    such 


ENRICHING    SOIL— COMMERCIAL    RESOURCES         103 

experiment,  on  different  parts  of  which  the 
various  elements  and  combinations  of  them 
may  be  applied. 

SUGGESTIOXS    OX   CHAPTEE    VI 

Vila.  An  element  is  a  simple  substance.  It  is  not  made  by  a 
combination  of  any  other  substances,  and  by  no  known  means  can 
it  be  separated  into  any  other  substances.  Sulfur,  nitrogen,  and 
phosphorus  are  elements.     The  knoTvn  elements  number  about  70. 

1275.  The  elements  are  represented  by  one  or  more  letters, 
called  symbols.  Usually  the  first  letter  of  the  name  is  employed. 
Thus,  nitrogen  is  designated  by  N,  phosphorus  by  P,  sulfur  by 
S.  When  the  names  of  different  elements  begin  with  the  same 
letter,  as  sulfur  and  sodium,  this  rule  cannot  be  followed.  In 
such  cases,  letters  from  the  name  of  one  of  the  elements  in  some 
other  language  are  used.  Thus,  Na  is  used  for  sodium,  natrium 
being  the  Latin  of  sodium.  Similarly,  P  might  represent  phos- 
phorus or  potassium  ;  hence  K  is  used  for  potassium,  which  in 
Latin  is  kalium. 

130a.  Compounds  result  from  the  chemical  union  (30c)  of  two 
or  more  elements.  The  compound  may  not  resemble  in  any  way 
any  of  the  elements  contained  in  it.  The  proportions  in  which 
elements  unite  vary,  and  the  same  elements  may  be  made  to 
unite  in  different  proportions.  The  same  compound  always  con- 
tains the  elements  in  exactly  the  same  proportion. 

130fc.  Compounds  are  represented  by  writing  together  the 
symbols  of  the  elements  composing  them,  together  with  figures 
to  represent  the  proportions.  Thus,  potash,  KoO,  is  a  compound 
of  two  parts  of  potassium  and  one  of  oxygen,  O.  Lime,  CaO,  is 
composed  of  the  elements  calcium,  Ca,  and  oxygen,  and  its 
chemical  name  is  calcium  oxid.  Other  compounds  are  nitrate  of 
soda,  NaNOs  ;  ammonia,  NH3  (H  representing  the  element  hy- 
drogen); water,  H2O  ;  sulfuric  acid,  H2SO4  ;  ammonium  nitrate, 
NH4NO3  ;  ammonium  sulfate  (NH4)2S04  (the  NHj  being  taken 
twice);  starch,  CsHioOs  (C;  representing  carbon);  salt,  NaCl 
(CI  standing  for  chlorin). 


104  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

130c.  Phosphoric  acid  and  potash  are  not  elements,  but  com- 
pounds. The  elemental  forms  are  phosphorus  and  potassium.  It 
is  customary,  however,  to  speak  of  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid 
and  potash  as  the  elements  of  plant-food.  Here  the  word  ele- 
ment is  not  used  in  the  chemical  sense,  but  rather  as  the  sim- 
plest form  in  which  plants  can  use  these  substances. 

131a.  Roots  have  the  power  of  dissolving  plant-food  (30, 
30a),  but  this  is  only  a  process  of  making  it  soluble.  Substances 
which  are  not  soluble  in  rain  water  may  be  soluble  in  soil  water, 
for  the  water  in  the  soil  contains  various  acids.  Even  when  a 
substance  is  in  solution,  the  plant  has  the  power  of  rejecting  it  ; 
it  is  thereby  not  available  as  plant-food.  For  example,  nitrogen 
in  the  form  of  nitrites  (as  nitrite  of  soda,  NaNOo)  is  not  availa- 
ble, although  it  is  soluble  ;  but  nitrogen  in  the  form  of  nitrates 
(as  nitrate  of  soda,  NaNOs)  is  available.  Charcoal  is  not  availa- 
ble plant-food,  although  it  is  carbon,  and  carbon  enters  more 
largely  than  any  other  element  into  plant  tissue.  But  when  the 
charcoal  is  burned,  it  forms  a  gas  called  carbon  dioxid  or  earbonie 
acid  (CO2),  from  which  the  plant  can  get  carbon. 

140a.  The  black  or  blue  head  of  an  old-fashioned  sulfur 
match  is  a  paste  containing  the  element  phosphorus,  P.  On 
igniting  the  match,  this  phosphorus  unites  with  the  element 
oxygen,  O,  in  the  air  to  form  a  small  white  cloud,  which  is  the 
compound  phosphorus  pentoxid.  Its  symbol  is  P2O5,  which 
means  that  it  is  made  by  the  union  of  two  parts  of  phosphorus 
and  five  parts  of  oxygen.  Phosphorus  pentoxid  is  known  in 
agriculture    as   phosphoric    acid. 

143a.  The  term  superphosphate  is  sometimes  used  in  the 
same  sense  as  acid  phosphate  ;  that  is,  to  designate  available 
phosphates,  or  those  which  are  made  up  of  monocaleic  and 
dicalcic  phosphates.  A  fertilizer  containing  available  phosphoric 
aoid,  but  no  nitrogen  or  potash,  is  often  called  a  plain  superphos- 
phate. Complete  fertilizers  contain  all  three  of  the  important 
plant-foods. 

153a.  Moisten  a  strip  of  blue  litmus  paper  with  vinegar  or 
sour  milk,  and  note  the  change  in  color.  Then  add  to  the  milk 
or  vinegar  some    lime  water   till   it   no  longer   tastes   sour,  and 


ENRICHING    SOIL — COMMERCIAL    RESOURCES         105 

again  try  the  litmus  paper.  It  will  no  longer  turn  red.  Try 
some  air-slaked  lime  in  the  same  way.  Make  the  same  test 
with  plaster  of  paris  or  gypsum,  which  is  sulfate  of  lime.  This 
will  not  neutralize  the  acid  or  sweeten  the  milk  or  vinegar. 
Make  the  same  test  with  salt  and  sugar.  A  substance  which 
turns  blue  litmus  red  is  acid  ;  one  which  turns  red  litmus  blue 
is  alkaline. 

16G(7.  The  experiment  stations  of  most  of  the  older  states 
issue  bulletins  of  advice  on  the  use  of  fertilizers,  and  these 
should  be  studied.  In  many  states  there  are  laws  designed  to 
protect  the  purchaser  of  fertilizers  ;  and  fertilizer  control  sta- 
tions are  established  to  analyze  the  different  brands  and  to 
publish  the  results.  The  general  subject  of  fertilizers  is  pre- 
sented in  Voorhees'  book  on  "Fertilizers."  Good  advice  will 
also  be  found  in  Chapter  xii.  of  Roberts'  "Fertility." 

I66?>.  Every  school  should  have  bottles  of  the  leading  ferti- 
lizer chemicals  for  exhibition  ;  as  muriate  and  sulfate  of  potash, 
kainit,  gypsum  or  plaster,  bone  and  rock  phosphates,  bone- 
black,  dried  blood,  nitrate  of  soda,  sulfate  of  ammonia,  air- 
slaked  lime,  and  quick-lime.  These  can  be  obtained  from 
dealers   in   fertilizers. 


P.VET    II 

THE    PLAXT.    AXD    CEOPS 


Chaptee  A'II 
THE    OFFICES    OF    THE    PLANT 

1.    Ti'.e  Plant  and  the   Crop 

167.  In  an  agi-icultural  sense,  the  plant,  as 
a  representative  of  the  vegetable  kingdom,  has 
four  general  types  of  uses,  or  fulfils  four  offices: 
it  aids  in  the  formation,  maintenance  and  im- 
provement of  soils ;  it  influences  the  climate 
and  habitableness  of  the  earth :  it  is  the  ulti- 
mate source  of  food  of  domestic  animals ;  it,  or 
its  products,  may  be  of  inti'insic  value  to  man. 

168.  "Wlien  plants  are  gi'own  in  quantity, 
they,  or  then-  products,  constitute  a  crop.  This 
crop  may  be  the  produce  of  a  bench  of  carna- 
tions, a  field  of  barley,  an  orchard  of  peaches, 
a  plantation  of  tomatoes,  or  a  forest.  The 
crop  may  be  grown  for  its  own  or  intrinsic 
value,  or  for  its  use  in  preparing  the  land  for 
other  crops. 

(106) 


THE     OFFICES     OF    THE     PLANT  107 

2.    TJie  Plant  in  its  Belation  to  Soil 

169.  The  plant  is  a  soil  maker.  It  breaks 
down  the  rock  by  mechanical  force  and  by  dis- 
solving some  of  its  constituents  (30,  306).  It 
fills  bogs  and  lagoons  and  extends  the  margins 
of   lakes    and    seas    (32,  32«)- 

170.  The  plant  is  a  soil  improver.  It  opens 
and  loosens  hard  soils,  especially  if,  like  the 
clover,  it  has  a  tap-root,  which  it  sends  deep 
into  the  earth.  It  fills  and  binds  loose  and 
leachy  soils.  When  it  decays  it  adds  humus 
(33,  34,  73,  74). 

171.  The  plant  is  a  soil  protector.  It  pre- 
vents the  washing  of  soils,  and  protects  the 
sands  of  dunes  and  shores  from  the  winds. 
It  holds  the  rainfall  until  it  soaks  into  the 
soil    (70,  116). 

3.    TJie  Plant  in  its  Belation  to  Climate 

172.  The  plant  influences  the  moisture  sup- 
ply: by  modifying  the  distribution  of  precipi- 
tation ;  by  causing  the  retention  of  the  pre- 
cipitation ;  by  lessening  evaporation ;  by  adding 
moisture  to  the   atmosphere. 

173.  The  plant  influences  the  habitableness 
of  the  earth  by  other  means  :  as  by  modifying 
extremes     of    temperature ;     by   affording    wind- 


108  THE     PRIXCrPLES     OF    AGRICULTUEE 

breaks ;     by  supplying    shade  ;    by    eontributiiig 
to  the  beauty  and  variety  of  the  landscape. 

4.    The  Plant  in  its  Relation  to  Animal  Life 

174.  Nearly  all  domestic  animals  live  directly 
on  plants.  These  are  herbivorous  animals,  such 
as  cattle,  horses,  sheep.  But  even  the  flesh 
which  carnivorous  animals  eat— as  dogs,  cats — 
is  directly  or  indirectly  derived  from  herbivo- 
rous  animals  ;    for  "all  flesh  is  grass." 

175.  The  round  of  life  begins  and  ends  with 
the  soil.  The  soil  contributes  to  feeding  the 
plant,  the  plant  feeds  the  animal,  and  the  ani- 
mal passes  at  last  into  the  soil.  In  this  round, 
there  is  no  creation  of  elements,  and  no  loss  ; 
but  there  are  endless  combinations,  and  these 
combinations  break  up  and  pass  away.  To 
raise  the  plant,  therefore,  is  the  primary  effort 
in  agricultm'e. 


5.   The  Plant  has  Intrinsic  Value  to  Man 

5a.  As  articles  of  food  or  beverage 

176.  Plants  or  plant -products  may  be  staples 
or  necessaries,  as  wheat,  rice,  potatoes,  beans ; 
semi- staples,  or  articles  of  very  general  and 
common    use,    as    apples,    oranges,    buckwheat ; 


THE     OFFICES     OF     THE     PLANT  109 

luxuries  or  accessories,  as  quinces,  cauliflowers, 
glass-house  vegetables ;  condiments,  as  spices ; 
beverage  products,  as  cider,  wine. 

177.  Plants  or  plant -products  may  be  food 
for  animals,  as  grains,  ground  feed,  fodders, 
forage    or   field   pasturage. 

56.  As  articles  used  in  the  arts 

178.  Plants  may  afford  textiles  or  fibers,  as 
cotton,  hemp,  flax,  jute ;  wood,  lumber  and 
timber ;    medicines,  as  quinine,  opium,  ginger. 

5c.  As  articles  or  objects  to  gratify  (esthetic  tastes 

179.  Plants  are  the  source  of  most  per- 
fumery,  and   of    many   dyes    and   paints. 

180.  Plants  are  themselves  useful  as  orna- 
mental subjects.  They  may  be  grown  for  their 
effects  as  individuals  or  single  specimens,  as  a 
tree,  a  shrub,  or  a  plant  in  a  pot ;  or  for  their 
effects  in  masses  in  the  landscape. 

181.  Plants  are  useful  for  their  flowers  or 
ornamental  fruits.  The  flowers  may  be  desired 
in  mass  effects,  as  single  specimen  plants,  or  as 
cut -flowers.  The  growing  of  plants  for  their 
effects  as  individuals  or  for  cut -flowers  is 
floriculture ;  the  growing  of  them  for  their  com- 
bined or  mass  effects  in  the  open  (or  on  the 
lawn)  is   landscape   horticulture  (9). 


110  THE     PRINCIPLES     OF     AGRICULTURE 

SUGGESTIOyS    OX    CHAPTER    VII 

170a.    Tap-roots  (Fig.  33)  extend  the  benefits  of  root  aOLion 
to  great  depths.      They  drain,   aerate   and    comminute  the   soil; 


Fig.  33.    The  deep  root-system  of 
red  clover. 


Fig.  34.    The  shallow  root-system 
of  orchard  grass. 


and  the  plant -food  which  they  bring  from  the  subsoil  is  left, 
when  the  plant  decays,  in  such  place  and  condition  that  sur- 
face-rooted plants  can  get  it.  With  the  clover,  compare  a 
grass    (Fig.   34). 

171a.    In   many  countries    definite    efforts  are  made  to    hold 


THE    OFFICES     OF     THE     PLANT  111 

loose  sands  from  drifting  by  winds,  as  along  the  coasts  of  the 
sea.  Sand-loving  plants  with  strong  running  roots  or  root- 
stocks — as  various  grasses  and  sedges — are  used  for  this  pur- 
pose. One  of  the  uses  of  windbreaks  is  to  lessen  the  drifting 
of  sands.  Bluffs  and  railway  embankments  are  often  held  from 
caving  and  washing  by  means  of  strong-rooted  plants. 

172a.  Large  forests  probably  have  some  influence  in  dis- 
tributing the  rainfall,  the  precipitation  tending  to  be  greatest 
near  the  forest  areas.  By  some  persons  it  is  thought  that  the 
total  precipitation  is  increased  by  forests,  but  this  point  is  in 
dispute.  The  off-flow  or  outflow  from  forest-covered,  or  from 
any  plant -covered,  lands  is  more  gradual  than  from  bare  lands; 
thus  floods  are  more  frequent  and  more  serious  the  more  com- 
pletely the  forests  are  removed.  This  is  illustrated  in  the  floods 
on  the   Ohio   and    other  rivers. 

I72b.  Plants  lessen  evaporation  chiefly  in  the  capacity  of 
shelter-belts.  Windbreaks  check  evaporation  from  adjacent  lands 
(see  King,  "The  Soil."  pp.  204-206);  and  this  is  one  valuable 
effect  of  windbreaks  for  fruit -plantations  in  dry  climates  (see 
Bailey,  "Principles  of  Fruit -Growing."  pp.  48-51.)  Forest  areas 
contribute  some  of  their  moisture  to  the  atmosphere  of  con- 
tiguous areas  ;  and  plants  give  off  moisture  from  their  grow- 
ing parts. 

173a.  For  a  full  discussion  of  windbreaks,  see  "Principles 
of  Fruit- Growing,"  pp.  47-57,  62-92. 


Cel^ptee  YIII 
HOW    THE    PLANT    LIVES 

B.  M.  BUGGAM 

1.  The  Plant  Activities 

182.  The  plant  is  a  very  dependent  stnic- 
^are:  it  must  be  supplied  with  water  and  certain 
soluble  salts  from  the  soil,  oxygen  and  carbon 
dioxid  from  the  air,  in  addition  to  sunlight  and 
a  certain  amount  of  heat.  When  these  con- 
ditions are  fulfilled, — somewhat  as  a  plant's 
ancestors  have  been  accustomed  to  them, — 
the  plant  must  gi'ow,  provided  no  extraneous 
diseases    or   accidents    overtake   it. 

1S3.  A  gi'owing  plant  is  influenced  by  all 
of  the  external  conditions  about  it, — it  is  sen- 
sitive, or  manifests  irritability.  In  studying 
growth  processes,  we  must  remember  that  these 
processes  are  occurring  in  a  highly  responsive 
living  object,  an  object  with  both  inexplainable 
internal  forces  and  with  processes  most  favor- 
able for  chemical  and  physical  study.  To  study 
how  a  plant  lives,  one  must  consider  the  im-\ 
portant   factors    of   growth,    actual    growth   phe- 

(112) 


HOW     THE     PLANT    LIVES  113 

uomena,  and    certain   other   conditions   to   whicii 
growth  is  sensitive. 


2.    The  Factors  of  Growth 
2a.    Water  in  the  plant 

184.  The  rigidity  or  stiffness  of  any  herb 
or  succulent  part  is  largely  dependent  on  its 
water  content.  If  a  succulent  branch  is  severed, 
it  soon  loses  its  water  by  evaporation,  and  it 
becomes  flaccid,  or  wilted.  The  proper  exten- 
sion, or  turgidity,  of  the  cells  of  plants  with 
water  is  necessary  for  active  growth.  The  pas- 
sage of  the  soil  water  into  the  plant,  and  there- 
after its  transfer  from  living  cell  to  living  cell, 
is  accomplished  by  the  process  of  osmosis,  which 
is  the  diffusion  of  liquids  through  membranes. 
Much  of  this  water  eventually  reaches  certain 
conducting  parts,  or  bundles. 

185.  Surrounding  each  rootlet  for  some  dis- 
tance back  of  the  tip  is  an  enveloping  growth  of 
delicate  root-hairs.  These  hairs  are  single, 
tubular  cells,  the  outgrowth  of  single  cells  in 
the  outer  layer  of  the  root.  Each  one  contains 
within  its  walls,  as  do  all  active  cells,  living 
matter  called  protoplasm,  along  with  cell -sap. 
In  the  soil  these  delicate  hairs  push  readily  in 
amongst  the  soil  particles,  covering  an   immense 


114  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

amount  of  space.  Owing  to  the  denser  cell -sap 
of  the  root -hairs  these  hairs  absorb  water  by 
osmosis.  There  are  in  solution  in  the  soil 
water  minute  quantities  of  food  substances,  and 
these  are  absorbed  independently  of  the  relative 
amounts  present.  The  absorptive  activity,  or 
pull,  of  the  root- hairs  is  so  great  that  water  may 
be  extracted  from  a  soil  apparently  dry. 

186.  Plants    contain   much   water;    but  it  re- 
^quires    oven    temperatures,    about    222°    F.,    to 

drive  out  all  the  water  from  plant  substance. 
The  total  water  in  some  plants,  as  determined 
by  the  chemist,  is  as  follows: 

Dry  clover  seed 6.4  per  cent. 

Dry  beans 12.5  "   *' 

Green  apple  twigs 50.0    "       " 

Potato  tubers 80.0    "      " 

Green  clover  tops 85.0     "       " 

187.  Water  is  absorbed  in  greater  quantity 
than  can  actually  enter  into  the  composition  of 
the  living  plant;  and  the  surplus  water  is  thrown 
off  by  a  process  of  evaporation  known  as  tran- 
spiration. The  water  is  rapidly  transpired  from 
certain  plant  surfaces,  especially  from  the  leaves 
and  green  stems.  The  water  current  is  import- 
ant;   for  example,  it  promptly  distributes  foods. 

188.  Leaves  are  provided  with  thousands  of 
minute  pores  in  the  epidermis,  connecting  with 
the    delicate   tissues    within.      These    pores,    or 


HOW     THE     PLANT     LIVES  115 

stomata,  are  especially  abundant  on  the  under 
surfaces  of  most  leaves.  With  changes  in  the 
water  content  of  the  plant,  these  stomata  open 
or  close,  to  a  degree  facilitating  or  inhibiting 
transpiration.  Like  evaporation,  transpiration  is 
hastened  by  higher  temperatures,  dry  air,  wind, 
and  the  movements  of  the  plant.  On  a  very 
hot  day,  or  with  insufficient  soil  moisture,  a 
plant  may  wilt,  due  to  the  fact  that  all  of  the 
facilities  for  checking  transpiration  fail  to  keep 
the  balance  between  root  absorption  and  tran- 
spiration. The  plant  gives  off  more  water  than 
it  takes  up;    therefore,  it  wilts. 

189.  The  absorptive  activity  of  the  roots  gives 
rise  to  a  sap-  or  root -pressure  which  tends  to 
force  the  current  upward.  In  fact,  the  lifting 
power  of  transpiration,  osmosis,  root -pressure, 
and  other  forces  cause  the  crude  sap  to  ascend 
through  the  woody  bundles  of  the  plant;  and  by 
means  of  these  bundles  absorbed  solutions  are 
carried  upward  through  all  parts  of  root  and 
stem,  and  through  the  leaf- stalk,  veins  and  vein- 
lets  to  all  parts  of  the  leaf. 

2b.    Soluble  salts  from  the  soil 

190.  Along  with  the  soil  water  absorbed  by 
the  roots,  minute  quantities  of  the  various  min- 
eral salts  necessary  for  plant  growth  are  taken 
in.     These   salts  are.  in   solution.     In  the  plant, 


116  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

these  solutions  become  a  part  of  the  ascending 
sap,  and  they  are  diffused  to  all  parts  where 
assimilation  goes  on.  Plants  possess  a  certain 
selective  absoiption,  yet  soil  elements  not  utilized 
by  the  plant  are  also  absorbed  in  greater  or 
less  quantity  depending  on  whether  or  not  de- 
posited in  inert  form.  Carbonic  acid,  and  per- 
haps other  substances  excreted  by  the  root,  aid 
in  dissolving  some  of  the  mineral  salts  (30). 

191.  Various  substances  are  taken  in  with 
the  soil  water.  Sodium  and  potassium  nitrate 
(nitre),  calcium  phosphate  (phosphate  of  lime), 
and  potassium  sulfate  are  well-known  ingredients 
of  fertilizers.  Chemical  analysis  and  experiments 
show  that  from  these  and  allied  salts  the  plant 
obtains  from  the  soil  such  necessary  elements  as 
nitrogen,  potassium,  phosphorus,  calcium,  and 
sulfur.  In  addition,  plants  also  secure  from  the 
soil  traces  of  iron,  and  whatever  magnesium,  sili- 
con, and  other  mineral  elements  maybe  necessary. 

192.  When  a  plant  is  burned  in  air,  the  ash 
contains  all  of  the  above-named  elements  except 
the  nitrogen  and  a  part  of  the  sulfur  and  phos- 
phorus. Nitrogen,  one  of  the  most  important  of 
plant-foods,  can  be  used  chiefly  in  the  form  of 
nitrates,  except  in  the  case  of  leguminous  plants 
(110,  138) ,  in  which  it  is  also  taken  from  the  air  in 
some  obscure  way  by  bacteria  of  the  root  tubercles. 


HOW    THE    PLANT    LIVES  117 

2c.    Oxygen 

193.  Oxygen  is  essential  to  all  of  the  life  pro- 
cesses in  the  plant,  as  well  as  to  the  animal.  For 
perfect  germination  oxygen  is  required,  and  this 
gas  diffuses  into  and  is  used  by  all  living  or  grow- 
ing plant  organs.  The  stomata  of  leaves  and 
shoots  are  mechanisms  insuring  an  adequate 
supply  for  these  parts.  Entering  these  stomata, 
it  is  readily  diffused  throughout  the  neighboring 
cells  and  tissues. 

194.  Oxygen  is  then  constantly  "absorbed," 
and  associated  with  this  absorption  is  the  giving 
off  of  carbon  dioxid.  This  appropriation  of 
oxygen  and  escape  of  carbon  dioxid  are  results 
of  respiration,  a  process  equivalent  in  its  pur- 
pose and  results  to  respiration  in  animals.  Young 
growing  plants  absorb  an  amount  of  oxygen  about 
equal  to  their  volume,  in  from  twenty- four  to 
thirty- six  hours.  Germinating  seeds  absorb  oxy- 
gen, and  give  off  ordinarily  about  an  equal  quan- 
tity of  carbon  dioxid. 

195.  Germinating  seeds,  opening  flower  buds, 
parts  of  plants  that  have  been  injured,  and  cer« 
tain  organs  in  which  decay  is  imminent,  respire 
more  rapidly  than  other  parts.  Respiration  prac- 
tically represents  molecular  change  and  the  re- 
lease  of  energy  in  the  living  substance. 

196.  Oxygen  is  also  taken  in  through  the 
roots.     Land  plants,  whose  roots  are  deprived  of 


118  THE    PRDCCIPLZS     OT     AGRICULTrRE 

their  aii*  by  loo  much  water,  are  soon  suffocated. 
This  is  especially  noticeable  in  a  field  of  Indian 
com  or  maize  which  has  l^een  overflowed ;  and  it 
is  also  a  condition  frequently  met  with  in  those 
greenhouses  where  an  abundant  use  of  water  is 
the  first  rule.  Many  plants  which  have  become 
accustomed  to  boggy  regions,  and  many  green- 
house plants,  send  up  to  the  surface  numerous 
root  formations  in  response  to  a  need  of  fresh 
air,  or  oxygen. 

2d.    Carhoti  dioxid  and  sunlight 

197.  The  element  that  is  present  in  greatest 
amount  in  plants  is  carbon.  This  material  is 
derived  in  green  plants  from  the  carbon  dioxid 
(or  carbonic  acid  gas)  of  the  air. 

198.  In  order  to  become  plant -food,  the  car- 
bon dioxid  of  the  air  first  diffuses  into  the  leaves; 
then  its  utilization  depends  on  the  green  color- 
ing matter  of  leaves, — or  the  chlorophyll, — and 
on  sunlight.  The  chlorophyll  absorbs  some  of 
the  energy  of  simlight.  and  by  means  of  the 
energy  thus  provided,  there  is  effected  a  rear- 
rangement of  the  atoms  of  carbon  dioxid  and 
water,  such  that  sugar,  and  ultimately  starch, 
may  be  produced  and  some  oxygen  is  set  free. 
This  process  of  the  formation  of  plant-food  from 
carbon  dioxid  and  water,  with  the  consequent 
giving   off   of   oxygen,  is   photosynthesis    (some- 


HOW     THE     PLANT     LIVES  119 

times  known  as  carbon  assimilation).  It  is  in 
its  results  the  reverse  of  respiration,  in  which 
oxygen  is  taken  in  and  carbon  dioxid  given  off. 

199.  During  the  day  a  much  greater  amount 
of  oxygen  is  set  free  as  a  result  of  photosynthesis 
than  that  used  in  respiration,  so  that  a  surplus 
of  oxygen  actually  diffuses  into  the  air,  and  plants 
are  said  to  purify  the  air.  At  night,  no  photo- 
synthesis goes  on,  and  the  chief  end-product  of 
respiration,  carbon  dioxid,  is  given  off,  and  may 
be  demonstrated  by  experiment. 

2e.   Heat,  or  a  definite  temperature 

200.  Heat  increases  the  absorptive  activity  of 
the  roots,  the  rate  of  transpiration,  the  amount  of 
respiration,  and  the  products  of  photosynthesis. 

201.  A  more  or  less  definite  degree  of  heat 
is  necessary  for  all  living  processes.  As  a  rule, 
seeds  will  not  germinate  at  the  freezing  point, 
and  all  growth  is  suspended  at  that  temperature. 
Plants  grow  best  within  a  very  small  range  of 
temperature,  known  as  the  optimum  tempera- 
ture. As  a  rule,  other  conditions  being  equal, 
plants  of  moist  tropical  regions  are  succulent,  and 
green  tissues  preponderate.  In  the  frigid  regions 
the  softer  green  parts  are  greatly  reduced,  and, 
while  the  woody  part  is  of  less  extent  than  in 
the  temperate  regions,  relatively  it  preponderates. 

202.  Different  plants  are  injured  by  different 


120  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICT7LTURE 

temperatures.  Such  plants  as  cotton  and  the 
melon  are  killed  by  a  temperature  several  degi'ees 
above  freezing.  The  living  protoplasm  is  stimu- 
lated to  give  up  its  water,  the  roots  are  chilled 
and  cannot  supply  to  the  leaves  that  water  nec- 
essary to  offset  transpiration,  and,  as  a  result, 
the  leaves  soon  wilt  and  blacken.  On  the  other 
hand,  even  the  green  j)arts  of  some  plants  will 
withstand  freezing  temperatures.  The  ability  to 
resist  cold  depends  primarily  on  the  response 
of  the  protoplasm,  its  capacity  to  give  up  water  in 
freezing  without  injury,  together  with  the  power 
of  reabsorption  on  thawing. 

3.    Tlie  Processes  of  Growth 

203.  The  starch  that  may  result  from  photo- 
synthesis or  the  use  of  carbon  dioxid  is  stored  in 
the  leaves  during  the  day,  and  at  night  it  may  be 
entirely  removed  and  used  after  being  converted 
into  a  soluble  substance,  sugar.  Some  of  this 
sugar  is  directly  used  in  building  up  more  complex 
compounds  used  in  growth,  and  some  of  it  is  again 
converted  into  starch  and  stored  in  tubers,  stems, 
or  thickened  leaves,  for  future  growth  purposes. 

204.  The  external  evidences  of  growth  are 
changes  in  form  and  size  of  the  different  parts. 
The  internal  evidences  of  growth  are  to  be  seen  in 
the  differentiation  of  the  individual  cells  of  which 


HOW    THE     PLANT    LIVES  12  L 

the  plant  is  composed, — new  cells  are  made,  and 
others  are  modified  in  size  or  form.  It  is  prob- 
ably impossible  for  a  plant  to  live  without  grow- 
ing; but  under  poor  conditions  the  growth  may  be 
so  slight  that  the  plant  is  no  longer  of  any  use 
to  the  farmer. 

205.  The  young  stems  of  many  plants  elongate 
throughout  the  entire  length  of  the  growing 
part.  But  the  lower  part  soon  reaches  the  limit 
of  its  growth,  the  rear  internode — or  space  be- 
tween the  joints — ceases  to  elongate,  and  further 
growth  in  length  proceeds  only  in  the  newer  parts 
above.  That  is,  while  there  is  an  elongation  or 
stretching  of  the  shoot  itself,  this  elongation 
gradually  lessens  below,  so  that  the  region  of 
most  rapid  growth  is  constantly  in  the  freshest 
and  softest  part  of  the  shoot.  Notice  that  the 
distance  between  the  joints  in  growing  shoots 
tends  for  a  time  to  increase. 

206.  The  root  grows  differently.  The  tip  of 
the  growing  root  is  hard,  being  protected  by  what 
is  known  as  a  root- cap.  Growth  in  length  takes 
place  just  behind  this  hard  tip,  not  throughout 
the  length  of  the  growing  part.  The  root,  there- 
fore, is   able  to  push   its  way  around  obstacles. 

207.  In  most  of  our  woody  plants,  increase  in 
diameter  is  effected  by  a  layer  of  growing  tissue, 
the  cambium,  located  just  beneath  the  bark;  and 
every  year  it  gives  rise  to  a  new  layer  of  wood  on 


122  THE     PRINCIPLES     OF     AGRICULTURE 

the  outside  of  the  old  wood,  and  to  a  new  layer 
of  bark  on  the  inside  of  the  old  bark.  Thus  the 
heart-wood  is  the  oldest  wood,  and  the  outside 
bark  constantly  breaking  off  is  the  oldest  bark. 
The  interior  wood  takes  less  and  less  part  in  the 
activities  of  the  plant,  and  the  heart -wood  of 
trees  is  nearly  useless  except  as  a  support  to 
the  plant. 

4.  Irritahility 

208.  Grrowing  parts  are  sensitive  or  responsive. 
This  responsiveness  or  irritability  may  be  called 
forth  by  diverse  external  forces,  and  is  manifest 
in  definite  movements,  in  growth  reactions,  and 
in  complex  internal  changes. 

209.  Some  plants  make  visible  movements, 
and  may  even  be  sensitive  to  shocks.  The 
sensitive -plant  suddenly  closes  its  leaves  and 
droops  when  touched  ;  the  leaves  of  sun -dew 
and  other  insectivorous  plants  close  upon  their 
prey;  and  the  tendril  of  the  gourd  gradually 
bends  around  the  object  it  touches. 

210.  Green  parts  turn  towards  the  light,  and 
assimilation  is  thereby  increased.  Plants  in 
windows  turn  the  broad  surfaces  of  their  leaves 
perpendicular  to  the  incoming  rays  of  light ; 
and  a  seedling  grown  under  a  box  into  which 
light  is  admitted  through  a  single  slit  will  grow 


HOW    THE    PLANT     LIVES  123 

directly  towards  that   slit,    and   even  through  it 
to  the  brighter  light. 

211.  Plants  are  sensitive  to  gravitation.  The 
first  root  of  the  germinating  seed  is  so  sensitive 
to  gravity  that  it  ordinarily  grows  downward, 
wherever  it  may  be  and  whatever  may  be  its 
position.  On  the  other  hand,  the  first  shoot  is 
oppositely  affected  by  gravity,  and  if  a  potted 
seedling  is  placed  horizontally  the  stem  soon 
directs  itself  upward.  While  its  general  tend- 
ency is  downward,  the  root  is  nevertheless 
attracted  in  any  direction  by  the  presence  of 
water. 

212.  The  reactions  of  plants  to  their  environ- 
ments or  surroundings  may  cause  the  plants  to 
vary,  or  to  assume  new  forms  or  characteristics; 
and  these  new  features  may  be  of  use  to  the 
farmer.  Thus,  with  more  light,  the  better  are 
the  roses  or  carnations  grown  under  glass;  the 
richer  the  soil,  the  stronger  is  the  growth  ;  the 
higher  the  altitude  or  latitude,  the  greater  is  the 
proportion  of  dwarf  plants. 

SUOGBSTTONS    0-V    Off  AFTER    VI 1 1 

182o.  A  salt  is  the  substance  formed  from  the  union  of  an  acid 
with  some  inorganic  substance  or  base.  The  salt  may  be  neutral, 
—  neither  acid  nor  alkaline.  Thus  sulfuric  acid  and  lime  form 
the  salt,  sulfate  of  lime  or  gypsum ;  nitric  acid  and  caustic  soda 
form  the  salt  nitrate  of  soda;    muriatic  (hydrochloric)  acid  and 


124 


THE    PRINCIPLES     OF    AGRICULTURE 


caustic  potash  form  muriate  of  potash  ;  muriate  acid  and  caustic  soda 
form  muriate  of  soda,  which  is  commonly  known  as  salt, — that  is, 
it  is  common  salt. 

184a.  From  a  potato  tuber  which  has  lain  in  the  air  until 
somewhat  wilted,  cut  circular  segments  about  one-fourth  of  an 
inch  or  less  in  thickness.  Place  some  of  these  pieces  in  water, 
and   others    in   strong   salt    solution.     In  a  short  time   those    in 

water  become  more  rigid,  while 
those  in  strong  salt  water  become 
flaccid.  The  cell-sap  of  the  po- 
tato, containing  some  salts  and 
sugars  in  solution,  is  a  denser 
solution  than  the  water,  and  the 
flow  of  water  is  inward  to  the 
denser  solution;  hence  the  pieces 
absorb  water.  Of  those  pieces  in 
strong  salt  solution  the  flow  of 
water  is  outward,  and  the  potato 
segments  lose  some  of  their  water 
and  become  flaccid.  See  Atkin- 
son's "Elementary  Botany,"  pp. 
13-18. 

185a.  A  cross -section  of  a  root- 
let in  Fig.  35  shows  the  root  hairs.  These  hairs  are  seen  to  be 
prolongations  of  the  outer  or  epidermal  cells. 

1856.  By  germinating  a  bean,  pumpkin  seed,  or  wheat  in 
moss,  or  between  folds  of  moist  thick  cloth,  the  root-hairs  may 
be  observed.  Fig.  36  shows  the  fringe  of  hairs  on  such  a  seed- 
ling ;  and  Fig.  37  shows  how  the  root-hairs  attach  the  soil 
particles  to  the  root.  For  a  longer  account  of  root -structures 
and  root-action,  compare  Sorauer,  "Physiology  of  Plants  for  the 
Use  of   Gardeners,"  pp.  4-7. 

186a.  Any  one  who  has  handled  both  green  and  dry  fodder 
has  a  general  idea  of  how  much  water  there  may  be  in  plants. 
Why  do  apples  and  grapes  and  cabbages  shrivel  after  they  are 
picked  ? 

188a.    A  single   epidermal  pore  is   a  stoma  or  stomate.     The 


Fig.  35.     Root-hairs,  eularged. 


HOW    THE     PLANT     LIVES 


125 


plural  is  stomata  or  stomates.  Fig.  38  shows  a  fragment  of  leaf 
in  cross -section,  a  being  a  stoma  opening  out  on  the  lower  sur- 
face. Looking  down  upon  the 
peeled-ofif  epidermis  of  the  lower 
surface,  stomata  are  seen  at  Fig.  39. 
1886.  Cut  off  a  leafy  branch  of 
any  herb,  insert  the  stem  through 
a  perforated  cork  into  a  bottle  of 
water,  and  then  place  the  whole 
under  a  bell-glass.  Note  how  soon 
the  water  vapor  thrown  off  condenses 
upon  the  glass.  Compare  Fig.  10, 
page  58. 
188t\  The  rate  of  tran- 
spiration from  a  single  leaf 
may  be  accurately  observed 
as  follows  :  A  large  U- 
shaped  glass  tube  is  filled 
with  water,  and  into  one  end 
of  this  tube  is  inserted  a 
perforated  cork  bearing  a 
small  glass  tube  or  capillary 
arm,  bent  at  right  angles. 
In  the  other  end  of  the  U- 
tube  is  fitted  a  cork,  through 
the  perforation  in  which  is 
inserted  the  leaf-stalk,  with  the  stem  reaching 
the  water,  as  shown  in  Fig.  40.  "When  this  last 
cork  is  forced  in,  water  will  fill  the  capillary  arm; 
and  the  recession  of  the  water  in  this  arm  to 
supply  that  transpired  shows  the  rate  of  tran- 
spiration. Wax  or  parafiin  should  be  used  to  seal 
around  the  perforations. 

189a.    Root-pressure  or  sap-pressure,  may  be 

made  evident  roughly  by  a  very  simple  experiment. 
...  ^  A      \     J       **  Fig.  37.    How  the 

An  inch  or  so  above  ground,  cut  off  a  stem  of  some      ^^^j  adheres  to 

actively-growing    herbaceous    plant,   as   the   sun-      the  young  root. 


Fig.  36.  The  root-hairs 
as  seen  on  a  darki 
damp  cloth. 


126 


THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 


flower.  Fit  tightly  over  this  stub  a  few  inches  of  rubber  tubing, 
partially  filling  the  tubing  with  water,  and  into  the  free  end  fit 
closely  a  small  glass  tube  several  feet  long,  supporting  the  tube 
by  a  stake.  In  a  few  hours  water  will  begin  to  rise  in  the  glass 
tube.  This  pressure  in  the  common  nettle  may  sustain  a  column 
of  water  over  ten  feet  in  height,  and  in  the  grape-vine  a  column 
more  than  thirty  feet  in  height.  It  is  inapplicable  for  plants  that 
force  up  only  a  small  volume  of  water  under  high  pressure. 

189&.  The  sap  ascends  through  the  young  woody  parts, — 
the  sap-wood  in  our  common  trees,  and  not  between  the  bark  and 
wood,    as    commonly    supposed.      To   note   the    special    channels 


Cross-section  of  a  leaf. 


FotiT  stomata. 


through  which  sap  ascends,  secure  a  few  joints  of  green  com, 
a  blade  of  celery,  a  leaf  of  canna,  and  some  woody  branch,  and 
put  the  stem  ends  into  a  tumbler  with  a  solution  of  some  red 
dye  or  stain,  preferably  eosin  or  fuchsin.  Oft^n  in  the  course 
of  a  few  hours  there  is  external  evidence  that  the  colored  liquid 
ascends  through  definite  channels,  at  least  with  the  succulent 
herbs.  Now  cut  off  the  st«ms  and  note  the  colored  regions, — 
in  the  com  those  thread-like  groups  of  fibers  so  noticeable  when 
an  old  cornstalk  is  broken  ;  in  the  celery,  likewise,  through  those 
stringy  fibers  known  to  all  who  have  eaten  tough  celery  ;  and 
in  woody  plants,  through  the  layers  of  wood  nearest  the  bark. 

190o.  For  fuller  discussions  of  the  subjects  outlined  in  190 
ind  191,  consult  Sorauer,  '^Physiology  of  Plants  for  the  Use  of 
Gardeners,"  pp.   30-44,  48-51. 


HOW     THE     PLANT     LIVES 


127 


194a.  Air  in  which  seeds  have  been  germinating  has  suffered 
a  change;  this  can  be  shown  in  the  following  manner:  —  Fill  a 
large-mouthed  bottle  half  full  with  soaked  beans  or  peas,  add  a 
small  quantity  of  water,  and  cork  it.  After  twenty-four  hours, 
pass  a  lighted  wax  taper  or  waxed  cord  into  the  jar,  and  it  will  be 

extinguished.      Make    the    same 
tests  in  a  jar  of  air,  and  see  that 
ri'^fSyV  H      the  taper  burns.    This  is  a  striking 

change.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the 
germination  has  increased  the 
amount  of  carbon  dioxid  and  di- 
minished the  amount  of  oxygen, 

but  other  more  elaborate  experi- 
ments would  be  needed  to  show 
how  we  know  that  these  are  the 
gases  affected. 

196fl.  For  a  discussion  of 
the  relation  of  wet  soils  to  oxy- 
gen-absorption, read  Sorauer, 
pp.    77-80. 

196&.  The  "cypress 
knees "  which  project 
from  the  water  in  cypress 
swamps  in  the  South  are 
supposed  to  be  aerating 
organs. 

197a.  If  a  plant  is 
burned  in  the  air,  the  resulting  ash  is  very  small ;  but  if  burned 
without  free  access  of  air,  as  in  a  charcoal  pit,  there  remains 
a  charred  mass  almost  as  great  in  volume  as  the  substance 
burned.  This  mass  is  largely  carbon,  a  most  important  element 
in  all  living  matter,  or  protoplasm.  In  combination  with  the 
elements  of  water,  carbon  also  forms  most  of  the  cellular  tissue 
of  plants,  likewise  the  starches  and  the  sugars,  all  of  which  are 
called  carbohydrates.  The  manufacture  of  these  starch-like  com- 
pounds by  the  appropriation  of  the  carbon   dioxid   of   the  air  ia 


Pig.  40.     Means  of  showing  transpiration. 


128 


THE     PRINCIPLES     OF     AGRICULTURE 


one  of  the  peculiarities  of  green  plants;  and  animals  depend  on 
plants  for  the  preliminary  preparation  of  these  necessary  eom- 
pounde. 

198rt.    The  word  assimilation  is  sometimes  used  in  this  restricted 

sense  in  plants,  as  defined  in 
19S.  In  general  speech  it 
means  the  appropriation  of 
prepared  or  digested  food,  as 
the  assimilation  of  the  food 
by  the  blood,  or  protoplasm. 

1965.  Chlorophyll  is  the 
green  coloring  matter  of 
plants.  It  looks  to  be  in  the 
form  of  minute  grains.  Most 
of  the  cells  in  Fig.  38  contain 
chlorophyll  grains. 

198c.  Plant-food,  in  the 
sense  in  which  the  term  is 
here  used,  is  a  product  of  pho- 
tosynthesis,— sugar,  starch  or 
some  similar  material.  In 
common  speech  the  term  food 
is  used  to  designate  any  ma- 
terial taken  in  and  ultimately 
used  by  the  plant,  as  nitrates, 
potash,  water;  and  a  general 
use  of  the  term  is  so  well 
established  that  it  cannot  be 
overthrown. 

l9Sd.    For  further   light  on 
assimilation,  compare   Arthur 
and       MacDougal,       "Living 
Plants  and  Their  Properties,"  pp.  145-152. 

199a.  Place  under  a  funnel  in  a  deep  beaker,  containing 
fresh  spring  or  stream  water,  growing  bits  of  water-weed 
(Elodea  CanadenMs),  and  invert  over  the  end  of  the  funnel  a  test- 
tube  filled  with  water,  as  in  Fig.  41.     In  the  sunlight  bubbles  of 


Fig.  41.   Experiment  to  show  the  giving 
off  of  oxygen. 


HOW     THE     PLANT     LIVES 


129 


gas  will  be  seen  to  rise  and  collect  in  the  tube.  If  a  sufficient 
quantity  of  this  gas  could  be  quickly  collected,  on  testing  it 
with  a  lighted  taper  the   flame  would   be  seen  to  quicken  per- 


fXS-  *^     Opening  of 
a  bua  of  pear. 


Fig.  -13.    The  marking  of  the  stem  and 
the  spreading  apart  of  the  marks. 


ceptibly,  indicating  more  oxygen  than  is  contained  in  the  air. 
In  this  case  the  carbon  dioxid  used  is  in  solution  in  the  water. 
The   Elodea  is  common   in  still  ponds. 

201a.  On  the  subject  of  temperature  and  plant  life,  compare 
Bailey,  "The  Survival  of  the  Unlike,"  pp.  44-48,  Chapters  xvii. 
and  xix. ;    and  Chapter  xiii.  of  Gaye's  "Great  World's  Farm." 

202«.  Compare  Arthur  and  MacDougal,  "  Living  Plants  and 
their  Properties,"  pp.  85-98,  for  a  discussion  of  the  influence  of 
cold   in    injuring   plants. 

203a.    To  test  for  starch  in  a    potato  tuber  or  other  storage 


130 


THE     PRINCIPLES     OF     AGRICULTURE 


Fig.  44. 

Marking   the 

root. 


organ,  spread  a  drop  of  tincture  of  iodine  on  the  cut  surface, 
and  the  blue  or  violet  color  indicates  the  presence  of  starcn. 
Test  the  laundry  starch. 

2036.    To  determine  that  starch  is  formed 

— ^      only  in  the  green  parts  of  leaves,  secure  a 

leaf  variegated' with  white,  like  a  coleus  or  geranium, 
which  has  been  some  hours  iu  sunlight.  Place  it  in  hot 
alcohol  until  the  green  color  disappears,  and  then  add  some 
iodine.  The  parts  which  were  green  are  colored  violet- 
brown,  indicating  starch,  but  the  white  parts  are  un- 
colored.  Another  leaf  covered  with  dark  cloth  for 
twenty-four  hours  will  show  little  or  no  starch  any- 
where, indicating  the  removal  in  darkness  of  the 
'°    starch    formed    in    sunlight. 

204«.    The  opening   bud    of    a 
beech  is  a  good  example  for    ob- 
servation   of    growth,    as     it    ex- 
pands   from   day  to  day.     The   long  scales  of 
the  winter  bud  become   looser,  and  gradually, 
by  the    elongation    of     parts    between     them, 
the  scales   are   forced    apart,   showing    at   the 
base  of   each  a  minute    leaf   of   perfect  form. 
Daily  the  leaf  increases  in  size,  the  internodes 
or  stem  portions  between  the  leaves  elongate, 
the  scales  fall   away,   and  from   a  bud   of   an 
inch    in  length,  by  elongation   throughout   its 
whole   extent   we  have  a   leafy  twig  of   many 
inches,  with  a  terminal  bud,  and  a  bud  in  the 
axil  of  each  leaf.    The  beginning  of  the  spring 
growth    is    likewise   well    shown    in    the    pear 
bud,  Fig.  42.     Consult  Bailey's  "Lessons  with 
Plants  "  pp.  44-72,  for  fuller  discussions,  with 
many  illustrations,   of   the  opening  of   buds. 

205a.  Mark  a  young  stem,  as  at  A  in  Fig. 
43 ;  but  the  next  day  we  shall  find  that  these  marks  are  farther 
aplrt  than  when  we  made  them  (B,  Fig.  43).  The  marks  have 
all  raised  themselves  above  the   ground  as  the  plant  has  grown. 


Fig.  4j.    The  root 
grows  in  end  portion. 


HOW     THE    PLANT     LIVES  131 

The  stem,  therefore,  has  grown  throughout  its  length  mtherthan 
from  the  end. — Bailey,  "Lessons  u'lth  Plants,"  p.  322. 

20Grt.  Germinate  a  squash  seed  between  layers  of  blotting-paper 
or  cloth.  When  the  root  has  grown  an  inch  or  two  lay  the  plantlet 
on  a  piece  of  paper.  Then  lay  a  rule  alongside  of  it,  and  make 
a  mark  (with  indelible  ink)  one-quarter  of  an  inch,  or  less,  from 
the  tip,  and  two  or  three  other  marks  at  equal  distances  above 
(Fig.  44).  Now  carefully  replace  the  seed.  Two  days  later, 
examine  it;  we  shall  most  likely  find  a  condition  something  like 
that  in  Fig.  45.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  marks  E,  C,  B,  are  prac- 
tically the  same  distance  apart  as  before,  and  they  are  also  the 
same  distance  from  the  peg,  A  A.  The  point  of  the  root  is  no 
longer  at  D  D,  however,  but  has  moved  on  to  F. — Bailey,  "Lessons 
with  Plants,"  p.  321." 

207a.  We  now  see  that  the  "sap"  of  trees  is  a  very  complex 
substance.  It  is  the  juice  or  liquid  in  the  plant.  The  liquid 
which  first  comes  in  at  the  root  is  water,  with  very  dilute  pro- 
portions of  various  substances.  But  the  sap  also  carries  the 
products  of  assimilation  to  all  parts  of  the  plant,  to  build  up  the 
tissues.  In  common  speech,  the  upward-moving  water,  recently 
taken  in  from  the  soil,  and  known  as  the  "transpiration  stream," 
is  often  called  crude  sap;  and  the  liquid  carrying  sugars  and 
other  organic  compounds  is  called  elaborated  sap. 

20da.  See  the  discussions  and  pictures  of  moving  parts  in 
Bailey's  "Lessons  with  Plants,"  pp.  H96-406;  also  Barnes'  "Plant 
Life,"  pp.  188-208;  Atkinson's  "Elementary  Botany,"  pp.  82-92; 
Arthur  and  MacDougal's  "Living  Plants,"  Chapters  i.-iv.,  and 
other  botanical  treatises. 


Chapter  IX 

THE    PROPAGATION    OF    PLANTS 

1.    The  Kinds  of  Propagation 

213.  Plants  naturally  propagate  by  two  gen- 
eral means, —  by  seeds  and  by  buds.  All  the 
modes  of  the  propagating  of  plants  employed  by 
the  farmer  and  gardener  are  but  modifications 
of  these  two  general  types. 

214.  The  farmer  has  three  objects  in  view  in 
the  propagation  of  plants:  to  renew  the  genera- 
tion, or  to  prevent  the  stock  from  dying  out;  to 
increase  the  number  of  plants ;  to  perpetuate  a 
particular  variety.  Thus,  the  farmer  must  resow 
his  wheat,  or  he  will  lose  the  stock;  but  he  ex- 
pects to  secure  more  plants  than  were  concerned 
in  the  production  of  the  seed  which  he  sows ; 
and  he  also  expects  to  reap  a  particular  variety, 
as   Diehl  or  Mediterranean. 

215.  Seeds  are  always  able  to  preserve  the 
race  or  stock  and  to  increase  the  number  of 
plants,  but  they  are  not  always  able  to  produce 
the  variety  which  bore  them.  Most  farm  crops 
and   most   garden  vegetables   reproduce   the  va- 

(132) 


THE  PROPAGATION  OF  PLANTS         133 

riety  from  seeds  ;  but  most  fruits  and  trees  and 
shrubs  do  not,  and  in  such  cases  recourse 
is  had  to  bud  propagation,  as  layers,  cuttings, 
grafts. 

2.    Seedage,  or  Propagation   by   Seeds 
2a.   Requisites  of  germination 

216.  In  order  that  seeds  shall  germinate,  the 
seeds  themselves  must  be  viable  (or  "good"). 
Viability  depends  upon  (a)  the  maturity  of  the 
seeds,  {h)  freshness, — they  shall  not  have  lost 
their  vitality  through  age, —  (c)  the  vigor  and 
general  healthfulness  of  the  plant  which  bore 
the  seeds,  {d)  proper  conditions  of  storage. 

217.  (Z>)  The  length  of  time  during  which 
seeds  retain  their  vitality  varies  with  the  kind  of 
plant  and  with  the  conditions  under  which  the 
seeds  were  grown.  That  is,  there  is  a  normal 
vitality  and  an  incidental  vitality.  Most  seeds 
germinate  best  when  not  more  than  one  or  two 
years  old,  but  retain  strong  vitality  three  or 
four  years ;  but  some  seeds,  notably  those  of 
onions  and  parsnips,  are  usually  not  safe  after 
a  year  old. 

218.  In  order  that  seeds  shall  germinate, 
they  must  also  have  proper  surrounding  con- 
ditions:  moisture,  free  oxygen  (air),  warmth. 


134  THE     PRINCIPLES     OF    AGRICULTUEE 

219.  The  ideal  condition  of  the  seed-bed,  so 
far  as  water  is  concerned,  is  that  it  shall  be 
moist,  not  wet.  Wet  soil  injures  seeds,  largely 
by  excluding  oxygen.  The  older  and  weaker  the 
seeds,  the  gi-eater  is  the  necessity  for  care  in 
applying  water :  they  should  be  kept  only 
slightly  moist  until  germination  is  well  started. 
The  soaking  of  seeds  starts  the  genninating  pro- 
cesses, but  it  should  not  be  continued  above 
twenty-four  hours,  as  a  i"ule,  and  should  not 
be  employed  with  very  weak  seeds. 

220.  Oxygen  is  supplied  to  germinating  seeds 
if  suflScient  aii'  is  allowed  to  reach  them  ;  and 
the  air  reaches  them  if  they  are  not  planted  too 
deep,  nor  kept  too  wet,  nor  the  soil  allowed  to 
"bake."  But  all  these  conditions  are  gi'eatly 
modified  by  the  kind  of  soil. 

221.  For  each  kind  of  seed  there  is  a  certain 
degree  of  warmth  under  which  it  will  germinate 
to  the  best  advantage ;  and  this  is  called  the 
optimum  temperature  for  that  seed.  The  opti- 
mum temperatui'e  is  not  unifonn  or  exact,  but 
ranges  through  a  limit  of  five  to  ten  degi'ees. 
Seeds  of  most  hardy  plants — as  wheat,  oats,  lye, 
lettuce,  cabbage,  and  wild  plants — germinate  best 
in  temperatm*es  between  45^  and  65°;  those  of 
tender  vegetables  and  consei'vatory  plants,  be- 
tween 60°  and  80°;  those  of  tropical  plants, 
between  75°  and  95°. 


THE  PROPAGATION  OF  PLANTS         135 

26.  The  raising  of  seedlings 

222.  The  ideal  soil  in  which  to  plant  seeds  is 
loose  and  friable,  does  not  ''bake,"  and  is  reten- 
tive of  moistnre.  It  is  neither  hard  clay  nor 
loose  sand. 

223.  The  looser  the  soil,  the  deeper  the  seeds 
may  be  planted,  since  the  plantlets  can  easily 
push  through  the  earth  ;  and  the  deeper  the 
planting  the  more  uniform  is  the  moisture.  For 
seeds  of  medium  size  and  of  strong  germinating 
power, — as  wheat,  cabbage,  apple, — a  quarter  or 
half  inch  is  sufficient  depth.  In  order  to  secure 
moisture  about  the  seeds,  the  earth  should  be 
firmed  or  packed  over  them,  particularly  in  a  diy 
time  ;  but  this  surface  earth  is  moist  because 
water  is  passing  through  it  into  the  air  (103, 
104) . 

224.  The  smaller  the  seed,  the  shallower 
should  it  be  sown,  as  a  rule,  and  the  greater 
should  be  the  care  in  sowing.  Very  small  seeds, 
as  those  of  begonia,  should  be  merely  pressed 
into  the  earth,  and  the  surface  is  then  kept 
moist  by  shading,  laying  on  a  paper,  cloth  or 
glass,  or  by  very  careful  watering.  Delicate 
seeds  are  often  sown  on  the  surface  of  well -firmed 
soil,  and  are  then  lightly  covered  by  sifting  soil 
or  dry  moss  over  them.  Keep  them  shaded  until 
germination  is  well  progi-essed. 


136  THE     PRINCIPLES     OF     AGRICULTURE 

225.  Seeds  may  regerminate.  That  is,  if 
germination  is  arrested  by  drought,  the  process 
may  be  renewed  when  congenial  conditions  recur, 
even  though  the  young  root  may  be  dried  and 
dead.  This  is  true  of  wheat,  oats,  maize,  pea, 
onion,  buckwheat,  and  other  seeds.  Some  seeds 
have  been  known  to  resume  germination  five 
and  six  times,  even  when  the  rootlet  had  grown 
half  an  inch  or  more  and  the  seeds  had  been 
thoroughly   dried   after    each   regermination. 

226.  Bony  and  nut -like  seeds  must  generally 
be  softened  by  lying  long  in  the  earth ;  and 
the  softening  and  splitting  of  the  coverings  is 
hastened  by  freezing.  Such  seeds  are  peach 
pits,  walnuts,  haws,  and  most  tree  seeds.  Gar- 
deners bury  such  seeds  in  earth  in  the  fall,  and 
plant  them  the  following  spring.  The  seeds  are, 
also,  often  mixed  with  sand,  or  placed  between 
layers  of  sand  in  a  box,  and  if  the  seeds  are 
from  hardy  plants  the  box  of  sand  is  placed 
where  it  will  freeze  throughout  the  winter.  This 
operation  is  known   as   stratification. 

3.    Propagation   by  Buds 
3a.    Why  and  Jiow  bud  propagation  is  used 

227.  When  varieties  do  not  "come  true"  or  do 
not  reproduce  themselves  from  seeds,  it  is  neces- 


THE  PROPAGATION  OF  PLANTS         137 

sary  to  propagate  them  by  means  of  buds.  In 
some  cases,  also,  seeds  are  not  produced  freely, 
and  then  recourse  is  had  to  buds.  In  many 
instances,  too,  as  in  grafting,  quicker  results  are 
obtained  by  bud  propagation  than  by  seed  prop- 
agation. One  means  of  dwarfing  plants  is  to 
graft  them  on  kinds  of  smaller  stature. 

228.  Of  bud  propagation,  there  are  two  gen- 
eral types, —  that  in  which  the  bud  remains 
attached  to  the  parent  plant  until  it  has  taken 
root,  and  that  in  which  the  bud  is  at  once  sepa- 
rated from  the  parent  plant.  Examples  of  the 
former  are  layers ;   of  the  latter,  cuttings. 

3b.    Undetached   buds 

229.  A  layer  is  a  shoot  or  a  root  which, 
while  still  attached  to  the  plant,  is  made  to 
take  root  with  the  intention  that  it  shall  be 
severed,    and   form  an  independent   plant. 

230.  The  layers  are  bent  to  the  gi'ound,  and 
at  one  place  or  joint  are  covered  with  earth ;  at 
this  joint  roots  are  emitted.  Layering  may  be 
performed  in  either  fall  or  spring,  but  the  for- 
mer is  usually  preferred.  The  layers  are  usually 
allowed  to  lie  one  season  before  they  are  sev- 
ered. Almost  any  plant  which  has  shoots  that 
can  be  bent  to  the  gi-ound  can  be  propagated 
by  layers ;  but  the  best  results  are  obtained  in 
plants  which  have  rather  soft  wood. 


138  THE     PRI^XIPLES     OF     AGRICULTURE 

3c.  Detached  buds 

231.  Of  propagation  by  detached  buds,  there 
are  two  t^-pes, — buds  which  are  inserted  in  the 
soil  or  in  water,  and  those  which  are  inserted  in 
another  plant.  The  former  are  cuttings ;  the 
latter  are  grafts. 

232.  Cuttings  may  be  made  of  soft  or  un- 
ripe wood,  or  of  hard  and  fully  matured  wood. 
Of  the  soft  kinds  are  cuttings  (or  "slips")  of 
geraniums,  fuchsias,  and  the  like.  Of  the  hard 
kinds  are  cuttings  of  grapes  and  currants. 

233.  Soft  cuttings  are  made  of  shoots  which 
are  sufficiently  mature  to  break  or  snap  when 
bent  double.  They  comprise  at  least  one  joint, 
and  sometimes  two  or  three.  The  leaves  are 
removed  from  the  lower  end,  and  if  the  upper 
leaves  are  large  they  may  be  cut  in  two,  or 
sheared,  to  prevent  too  rapid  evaporation.  A 
soil  free  from  vegetable  matter,  as  sand,  is  pref- 
erable. It  is  generally  necessary  to  shade  the 
cuttings  until  they  are  established. 

234.  Hardwood  or  dormant  cuttings  are 
taken  in  fall  or  winter.  They  usually  compiise 
two  or  more  buds.  They  root  better  if  they  are 
callused  (partially  healed  over  on  the  bottom 
end)  before  they  are  planted :  therefore,  it  is 
customary  to  bury  them  in  sand,  or  to  stand 
them  in  sand,,  in  a  cool  cellar  until  spring.     In 


THE  PROPAGATION  OF  PLANTS         139 

spring   they   are  set    into  the  ground  up    to   the 
top  bud. 

235.  Single -eye  cuttings — that  is,  one -bud 
cuttings — are  sometimes  employed  when  buds 
are  scarce,  as  in  new  or  rare  plants.  These  are 
usually  started  under  glass.  They  are  planted 
half  an  inch  or  an  inch  deep,  in  an  oblique  or 
horizontal  position. 

236.  Grafting  is  the  operation  of  making 
one  plant,  or  a  part  of  it,  grow  upon  another 
l>lant.  The  part  which  is  transferred  or  trans- 
planted is  the  cion ;  the  plant  into  which  this 
X")art  is  transplanted   is    the    stock. 

237.  A  cion  may  contain  one  bud  or  many. 
It  may  be  inserted  in  a  cleft  or  split  in  the 
wood  of  the  stock,  or  it  may  be  inserted 
between  the  bark  and  wood  of  the  stock.  A 
single  bud  which  is  inserted  between  the  bark 
and  wood  is  technically  known  as  a  ''  bud,"  and 
the  process  of  inserting  it  is  known  as  budding; 
but  budding  is  only  a  special  kind  of  gi-afting. 

238.  The  cion  and  stock  unite  because  the 
cambium  of  the  two  grow  together.  This  cam- 
bium is  between  the  bark  and  the  wood  (207) : 
therefore  it  is  important  that  the  inner  face  of 
the  bark  of  the  cion  (or  bud)  be  applied  to  the 
surface  of  the  wood  of  the  stock ;  or,  if  the 
cion  is  inserted  in  a  cleft,  that  the  line  between 
the  bark,  in  the  two,  come  together. 


140  THE     PRINCIPLES     OF     AGRICULTURE 

239.  When  the  cion  is  inserted,  the  wounded 
surfaces  must  be  tightly  closed,  to  prevent  the 
parts  from  drying  out.  Whenever  the  stock  is 
cut  off  to  receive  the  cion,  thereby  wounding  the 
wood,  wax  is  used  to  cover  the  wound  ;  when 
only  the  bark  is  raised  to  admit  the  cion  or  bud, 
a  bandage   is   used. 

240.  Grafting  with  hardwood  cions  of  two 
or  more  buds  —  which  is  usually  spoken  of  as 
grafting  pro]3er  —  is  performed  in  spring,  and 
the  cions  are  cut  in  the  winter  and  are  kept 
fresh  and  dormant  (as  in  a  cellar)  until  wanted. 
The  cion  is  made  from  the  wood  of  the  pre- 
vious season's  growth,  of  the  variety  which  it  is 
desired  to  propagate. 

241.  Budding — or  inserting  a  single  bud  un- 
derneath the  bark — may  be  performed  whenever 
the  bark  of  the  stock  will  peel  or  ''slip,"  and 
when  mature  buds  can  be  secured.  If  performed 
in  spring,  the  buds  are  cut  in  winter,  as  for 
grafting  proper.  If  performed  in  late  summer 
or  early  fall — and  this  is  the  custom — the  buds 
are  cut  at  the  time,  from  the  season's  growth. 

SUGGESTIONS   OX  CEAPTEB  IX 

215a.  It  is  impracticable,  in  this  eonneetion,  to  explain  fully 
why  it  is  that  some  plants  ''come  true"  from  seed,  and  others 
(as  apples,  strawberries,  roses)  do  not  ;  but  the  enquirer  will 
find   the   matter   expounded    in   Bailey's  "Plant -Breeding,"  pp. 


THE    PROPAGATION    OF    PLANTS 


141 


88-91.  The  reason  is  that  in  plants  which  are  habitually  propa- 
gated by  seeds,  as  the  garden  vegetables,  we  are  constantly 
discarding  the  forms  which  do  not  come  true,  and  are  thereby 
fixing  the  tendency  to  come  true,  —  since  only  the  individuals 
which  do  come  true  are  allowed  to  per- 
petuate themselves.  In  plants  which  are 
not  habitually  propagated  by  seeds,  this 
selection  does  not  take  place,  and  the 
tendency  to  come  true  is  not  fixed. 

217a.  The  longest-lived  seeds  are  those 
borne  on  plants  which  reach  their  normal, 
healthy  development.  Those  produced  in 
very  dry  years  are  apt  to  have  low  vitality. 
Seeds  should  be  stored  in  a  dry  and  fairly 
cool  room.  Tables  of  the  longevity  of  garden  seeds  may  be 
found  on  pp.  104-107  of  the  4th  edition  of  "Horticulturist's 
Rule -Book." 


Fig.  46.    Seed-pot,  covered 
with  glass. 


^mi. 


V)  (I 


t'ig.  47.    Four  layered  shoots. 


219a.    "Nursery -Book,"    pp.    1-7,    discusses     the     means     of 
regulating  moisture,  with  illustrations. 

220a.    As  an  experiment,   plant  corn   a  foot    deep   in  warm, 


L42 


THE     PRINCIPLES     OF     AGRICULTURE 


firm  soil.  Run  a  little  stick  or  splinter  down  to  some  of  the 
seeds,  allowing  it  to  remain.  The  air  enters  alongside  the  stick. 
Observe  if  there  is  any  difference  in  germination.  If  not,  try 
it  when  the  soil   is  very  wet. 

224a.    Very  small    seeds    are   often    sown  very  shallow  in    a 
pot,  and   a  pane  of  glass  is  laid  over  the  pot  to  cheek  evapora- 


tion (Fig.  46).  As  soon 
pear,  the  glass  is  re- 
tailed directions  for  the 
see  the  "  Xursery-Book," 
230ff.  An  illustra- 
given  in  Fig.  47.  Four 
shoots  are  layered.  One 
shoot,   A,   is  layered  in 


as  the  plantletsap- 
moved.       For    de- 
sowing     of     seeds, 
pp.  15-25. 
tion  of   layering  is 


Pig.  48.    Coleus  cutting 
(xJ^). 


Fig.  49.     Cutting  held  by 
tooth-pick  {s.}i). 


Fig.  50.    One  style  ol 

chrysanthemum 

cutting  (x.^s). 


two  places,  and  two  plants  will  result.  When  the  layers  have 
taken  root,  the  part  is  severed  and  treated  as  an  independent 
plant.  Honeysuckles,  lilacs,  snowballs,  and  many  common 
bushes  can  be  layered  with  ease.  See  Chapter  iii..  in  "Nursery- 
Book,"  for  full   discussion. 

233a.  These  green  cuttings  may  be  planted  in  shallow  boxes 
of  sand,  in  coldframes  or  hotbeds,  or  in  the  bench  of  a  glass- 
house.    Figs.  48-50  illustrate  the  process. 

234a.  A  .grape  cutting  is  shown  in  Fig.  51.  This  is  the 
eommon  fashion  for  propagating  the  grape  ;  but  new  varieties 
are  often  grown  from  single  eyes,  as  shown  in  Fig.  52.     Consult 


Fig.  52.    Single-eye  grape  cutting  (x>^). 


Fig.  54.    Shield  bud. 


Fig.  5.3.    Cleft 
grafting. 


Fig.  51. 
Grape   cut- 
ting (iH). 


W 


f\ 


Lif;1 


Fig.  55.    Bud  entering  matrix  (x/^). 


Fig.  56.     A  Willed 
stub  {zVi). 


Fig.  57.  The  bud  in 
Fig.  55  was  shoved 
dowTi  until  cov- 
ered by  the  bark, 
and  now  tied  with 
bast. 


144  THE    PRINCIPLES     OF     AGRICULTURE 

Chapter  iv.  of  ''Nursery -Book,"  for  full  directions  for  making 
and  growing  cuttings. 

238a.  Two  eions  inserted  in  a  cleft  in  the  stock  are  shown  in 
Fig.  53.  The  cambium  layers  come  together  in  the  eion  and 
the  stock.  A  "bud"  eion  is  shown  in  Fig.  54,  and  the  operation 
of  shoving  this  down  between  the  bark  and  wood  of  the  stock 
is  seen  in  Fig.  55. 

239a.  The  waxing  of  a  stock  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  56.  The 
tying  of  a  bud  (by  soft  cord  or  bast)  is  shown  in  Fig.  57. 

24r0a.  The  common  style  of  grafting  is  suggested  in  Figs.  53 
and  56.  This  is  known  as  cleft -grafting,  from  the  splitting  of 
the  stock.  It  is  the  style  nearly  always  employed  in  orchard 
trees  of    apples  and   pears. 

241a.  Shield-budding  is  the  common  style.  It  is  illustrated 
in  Figs.  54,  55,  57.  The  buds  are  cut  at  the  time  of  the  bud- 
ding, the  leaves  being  at  once  taken  off  to  prevent  evaporation  ; 
but  a  bit  of  the  leaf-stalk  is  usually  left  to  serve  as  a  handle, 
as  seen  in  the  picture.  Peaches,  cherries,  plums,  oranges,  are 
usually  budded. 

241  &.  In  all  kinds  of  grafting  and  budding,  the  operator 
must  be  careful  to  select  cions,  or  buds,  from  only  those  varie- 
ties which  he  desires  to  perpetuate.  The  stocks  used  by  nur- 
serymen are  seedlings  ;  but  even  if  the  plant  is  grafted,  it  can 
be  grafted  again,  the  same  as  if  it  were  a  seedling.  In  most 
cases,  a  variety  is  grafted  on  another  plant  of  the  same  general 
kind,  as  a  peach  on  a  peach,  an  apple  on  an  apple,  a  plum  on 
a  plum  ;  but  there  are  cases  in  which  one  kind  or  species  is 
grafted  on  a  different  species:  (a)  to  secure  a  dwarf  plant,  by 
grafting  on  a  slow- growing  root  (as  pear  on  quince),  or  (6)  be- 
cause seeds  of  the  given  species  are  rare,  and  a  closely  related 
stock  is  therefore  substituted.  For  extended  accounts  of  bud- 
ding and   grafting,  refer  to  "Nursery -Book,"  Chapter  v. 


Chapter   X 
PREPARATION    OF   LAND    FOR   THE    SEED 


I.  p.  ROBERTS 


1.    Factors  Which  Determine  the  Preparation 
of  the  Seed -bed 

242.  Faulty  preparation  of  the  land  is  the 
eanse  of  more  failui'es  than  the  subsequent 
treatment  of  the  crop.  In  field  conditions,  this 
preparation  can  not  be  so  thorough,  or  so  ideal, 
as  in  garden  areas  or  in  glass-houses.  The 
general  condition  of  the  farm  work  dictates  to 
a  gi'eat  extent  the  particular  time  when  the 
seed  shall  be  sown  and  the  amount  of  prepara- 
tory work  which  shall  be  put  on  the  land : 
therefore,  it  is  very  important  that  the  farmer 
fully  understand  what  is  required,  in  order  that 
he  may  make  no  mistakes. 

243.  The  preparation  of  the  land  for  seeding 
should  be  governed  by  two  factors :  by  the 
needs  of  the  particular  plant  which  is  to  be 
grown,  and  by  the  character  of  the  land.  To 
prepare  a  seed-bed  for  any  crop,  the  habits, 
likes    and    dislikes    of    the    plants     should    be 

J  (145) 


146  THE     PRLSCIPLES     OF     AGRICULTURE 

studied.  That  is,  it  is  not  enough  that  the 
land  be  well  prepared :  it  should  have  the  kind 
of  preparation  which  is  demanded  by  the  crop. 

2.    Tlie   Demands  of  the  Plant 

244.  The  preparation  of  the  seed-bed  differs 
with  the  way  in  which  the  plant  is  propagated. 
Some  plants  are  propagated  by  a  piece  or 
part  of  an  nndergi-ound  stem  or  tuber,  as  the 
potato ;  others  by  a  branch  of  the  aerial 
part,  as  the  willow  or  sugar-cane.  In  all  of 
these  cases,  the  buds  or  eyes  are  surrounded 
with  food  for  immediate  use.  This  stored  food 
gives  them  power  to  send  out  strong  shoots  and 
to  grow  for  some  time  without  having  to  secui'e 
nourishment  from  the  soil.  But  many  plants  are 
propagated  by  tiny  seeds.  These  start  in 
life  with  little  stored  food,  and,  therefore,  must 
quickly  secm-e  nourishment  from  the  soil ;  and 
the  land  must,  therefore,  be  very  well  prepared. 
These  seeds  should  be  planted  near  the  surface, 
for  there  will  not  be  strength  enough  in  the 
infant  plant  to  push  its  way  through,  if  planted 
as   deep   as   the  potato. 

245.  Plants  may  change  or  modify  theu- 
characteristics  to  adapt  themselves  to  changed 
conditions.  The  common  red  clover  is  a  tap- 
rooted    plant,  but   if    it   grows   on    soil   which    is 


PREPARATION  OF  LAND  FOR  THE  SEED     147 

underlaid  with  wet  clay,  it  tends  to  become 
fibrous -rooted.  Even  long-lived  perennials,  as 
trees,  do  best  when  the  surface  soil  is  well  pre- 
pared to  a  depth  of  ten  to  twelve  inches,  since 
many  feeding  roots  of  trees,  especially  of  young 
ones,  find  nourishment   in  this  prepared  soil. 

246.  Plants  differ  greatly,  however,  in  ability 
to  adapt  themselves  to  unfavorable  conditions. 
Many  common  plants  send  their  tap-roots  into 
the  subsoil  for  two  to  three  feet,  even  if  it  be 
hard,  while  sugar  beets  become  fibrous -rooted, 
and  may  be  pushed  up  and  partly  out  of  the 
ground  if  their  tap-roots  attempt  to  enter  the 
undisturbed  hard  subsoil.  Land  devoted  to 
clover  need  not  necessarily  be  subsoiled  if  it 
be  fairly  free  from  stagnant  water,  while  that 
planted  to  sugar  beets  should  be  subsoiled, 
for  the  reason  that  a  long,  fusiform  root  is 
desired,  all  or  nearly  all  of  which  should  be 
below  the  surface ;  for  that  part  of  the  beet 
which  gi'ows  above  the  ground  is  not  nearly  so 
valuable  for  making  sugar  as  that  part  which 
grows  under  gi'ound. 

247.  Nearly  all  of  the  common  and  quick- 
growing  plants  secure  the  larger  part  of  their 
nourishment  and  moisture  from  the  first,  or  sur- 
face foot  of  soil.  This  being  so,  it  is  seen  how 
necessary  it  is  to  prepare  the  soil  in  the  best 
possible  manner.     If  the  upper  soil   is  not  well 


148  THE     PEDfCIPLES     OF    AGRICULTURE 

prepared,  the  roots  must  search  wide  and   deep 
for  food. 

248.  Most  of  the  smaller  plants  require  but 
about  six  months  in  which  to  grow  and  to  fruit. 
If,  in  order  to  secure  nourishment  and  moisture, 
the  roots  are  obliged  to  descend  into  the  cold, 
hard  subsoil,  where  the  plant -food  is  likely  to  be 
least  available,  neither  growth  nor  fruitage  can 
be  satisfactory.  Those  plants  which  do  not  ma- 
ture until  they  are  five  to  twenty  years  of  age,  as 
fruit  trees,  can  secure  much  nourishment  from 
the  subsoil,  although  they  secure  little  in  any 
one  growing  season.  Then,  too,  trees  must  se- 
cure a  firm  hold  on  the  land,  or  they  will  be 
prostrated  by  winds.  By  being  oVjliged  to  send 
many  of  their  roots  into  the  cold,  firm  subsoil 
through  many  generations,  trees  have  probably 
acquired  the  power  of  securing  more  of  the  tough 
or  unavailable  food  of  the  subsoil  than  plants 
which  live  but  one  season. 

249.  Different  plants  requu-e  not  only  to  be 
planted  at  different  seasons  of  the  year,  but  at 
different  depths.  They  demand  different  meth- 
ods of  preparation  of  the  surface  sod.  Some 
do  best  when  placed  in  loose,  warm  soil,  as, 
for  instance,  maize  and  sweet  potatoe?i ;  while 
others  do  best  when  grown  on  fairly  cold  and 
somewhat  compacted  surface  soil,  as  winter 
wheat. 


PREPARATION  OF  LAND  FOR  THE  SEED     149 

3.    The  Preparing  of  the   Seed-bed 

250.  Nearly  all  plants  thrive  best  when  fur- 
nished with  a  full  and  continuous  supply  of 
moisture.  Fine,  loose  earth,  which  contains  a 
moderate  admixture  of  humus,  is  capable  of 
holding  much  moisture  (73,  74) ;  but  the  soil 
may  be  so  loose  and  light  as  to  admit  too 
rapid  movement  of  air,  in  which  case  the  mois- 
ture will  be  carried  away.  If  the  particles  of 
earth  are  separated  too  widely,  capillarity  is 
weakened.  In  such  cases  the  subsurface  soil 
should  be  slightly  compacted,  while  one  to  three 
inches  of  the  surface  is  left  loose  to  form  an 
earth -mulch,  which  tends  to  prevent  loss  of 
moisture  by  evaporation.  The  particles  of  the 
loose  surface  earth- mulch  should  be  so  widely 
separated  that  the  moisture  can  climb  only  to 
the  bottom  of  it,  for  if  it  comes  to  the  surface 
the  air  will  carry  it  away  (83).  The  earth-mulch 
shades  the  ground  in  which  the  plants  are  grow- 
ing, prevents  the  soil  from  cracking,  and  saves 
moisture. 

251.  The  seed-bed  should  contain  no  free 
water  ;  but  it  is  impossible  to  secure  this  con- 
dition at  all  times.  No  serious  harm  may  come 
when  the  soil  is  over- saturated  at  planting  time, 
if  the  free  water  is  quickly  removed.  If  the 
soil   contains  more  water   than   it   can   hold    by 


150  THE    PRIXCIPLES     OF    AGRICULTURE 

capillarity,  the  air   is   driven   out,   and    the   soil 
swells  and  tends  to  become  pnddled  (81). 

252.  Many  seeds  wiQ  not  germinate  if  planted 
ont  of  season,  or  when  the  soil  is  cool,  no  matter 
how  well  the  seed-bed  is  prepared.  Then,  if  it 
is  desired  to  plant  eariy,  make  the  land  fine  and 
loose,  for  in  so  doing  the  temperature  of  the 
soil  is  raised.  The  soil  of  a  fine,  porous  seed- 
bed, resting  on  a  well-drained  subsurface  and 
sabsoU,  is  much  warmer  than  one  resting  on  a 
compact,  nndrained  foundation.  However,  it  is 
not  wise  to  plant  seeds  out  of  season  or  when 
the  weather  is  unsuitable. 

253.  If  small  seeds  are  covered  with  but  little 
earth,  they  may  fail  to  germinate  for  lack  of 
moisture.  K  covered  with  enough  fine  earth  to 
insure  a  constant  supply  of  moisture,  the  young 
plant?  have  a  hard  struggle  to  reach  the  surface. 
<JL-  few  of  the  small  seeds,  as  clover  and 
i:.  :.  :  :  se  planted  in  the  kitchen- garden  or 
iiowe-i-gc:  y .  -ver  produce  plants.  Sometimes 
the  seeds  ^perfect,  but  more  often  the  fail- 
ure to  secure  vigorous  germination  is  due  to  a 
poor  seed-bed  or  to  careless  planting.  To  ob- 
tain better  results,  not  only  prepare  a  fine  seed- 
bed and  sow  at  the  proper  time,  but  compact 
the  soil  unmediately  over  the  row  of  seeds. 
Th:=  -ril  enable  capillary  attraction  to  bring 
LL      r  :-  to  the  surface,  or  near  it  (103;.     The 


PREPARATION  OF  LAND  FOR  THE  SEED     151 

earth -mulch    should    remain    unpacked    between 
the  rows,  to  conserve  moisture. 

254.  In  some  cases  it  is  impossible  to  secure 
a  proper  seed-bed  for  small  seeds.  For  ex- 
ample, no  suitable  seed-bed  can  be  procured, 
as  a  rule,  for  clover  seeds  when  sowed  in  a 
growing  tilled  crop.  In  order  to  secure  germina- 
tion, these  seeds  are  sown  on  the  surface  in  early 
spring,  while  the  surface  soil  is  still  porous 
from  winter  freezing.  The  spring  rains  wash 
the  seeds  into  the  little  cracks  in  the  soil  and 
partly  cover  them.  The  weather  being  cool  and 
cloudy  and  the  soil  moist  in  early  spring,  the 
oily  seeds  of  the  clover  are  kept  damp  enough  to 
insure  germination.  If  such  small  seeds  are  sown 
in  summer  or  early  fall,  the  land  is  rolled  for 
the  purpose  of    supplying  them  with  moisture. 

255.  A  good  field  seed-bed,  then,  can  be 
secured  profitably  only  on  land  which  is  either 
naturally  or  artificially  well  drained,  which  has 
been  well  broken  and  crumbled  by  the  plow,  and 
the  surface  of  which  has  been  thoroughly  fined 
by  the  harrow.  Particular  care  should  be  taken 
not  to  work  heavy  or  clay  lands  when  they  are 
wet.  Neither  should  clay  lands  be  tilled  so  much 
that  they  become  very  dusty,  else  they  will  puddle 
when  the  rains  come.  The  remarks  respecting 
the  proper  tillage  of  the  land  (Chapter  iv.)  will 
apply  here. 


152  THE    PRINCIPLES     OF    AGRICULTURE 

4.    Application  of  the  Foregoing  Principles 
4a.    Wheat 

256.  TTinter  wheat  does  best  when  one  or  two 
inches  of  the  surface  soil  is  fine  and  loose,  and 
the  subsurface  soil  fine  and  fairly  compact. 

257.  To  secure  the  ideal  conditions,  the 
ground  should  be  plowed  some  time  before  sow- 
ing, and  the  manure  spread  on  the  rough 
surface.  The  ground  is  immediately  harrowed, 
rolled,  and  harrowed  again.  In  one  or  two 
weeks  afterward  it  is  surface -tilled  again,  with 
the  implements  best  suited  to  the  particular 
soil.  All  this  tends  to  divide  and  cover  the 
manure,  compact  the  subsurface  soil,  form  a 
fine  seed-bed,  conserve  moisture,  and  set  free 
plant -food. 

258.  This  treatment  of  the  land  causes  the 
roots  to  be  many  and  fibrous,  and  to  remain 
near  the  surface,  where  the  plant -food  is 
most  abundant  and  available.  If  the  manure 
is  plowed  under  and  the  soil  remains  loose,  the 
roots  are  less  fibrous  and  descend  to  the 
bottom  of  the  furrow.  In  the  spring,  it  often 
freezes  at  night  and  thaws  during  the  day. 
This  tends  to  lift  the  plants  and  to  break 
their  roots.  But  if  the  roots  are  nearly  hori- 
zontal   and   near  the   sm-face,  they  tend   to  rise 


PREPARATION  OF  LAND  FOR  THE  SEED     153 

and  fall  with  the  freezing  and  thawing,  and  are 
not  seriously  injured. 

259.  As  the  soil  becomes  hot  at  the  surface 
in  June  and  July,  the  shallow  roots  descend 
to  the  subsurface  soil,  where  it  is  cool  and 
where  the  plant- food  was  not  drawn  upon  dur- 
ing the  fall  ;  while  the  deep  fall -rooted  plants 
will  be  unable  to  find  new  feeding  ground  when 
they  need  it  most,  just  before  fruiting,  unless 
the  roots  start  toward  the  surface,  which  they 
will  not  do,  for  in  midsummer  the  surface  soil  is 
hard  and  dryish  and  too  warm  for  wheat  roots. 

46.    Maize,  or  Indian  corn 

260.  The  seed-bed  for  maize,  which  is  a  sun- 
plant  and  does  best  when  planted  in  a  warm 
soil,  may  be  prepared  in  a  different  way  from 
that  designed  for  winter  wheat.  Since  maize  is 
planted  in  the  spring,  when  the  soil  is  often  too 
cool  for  this  semi-tropical  plant,  the  subsurface 
soil  should  not  be  as  compact  as  for  wheat.  If 
left  rather  open,  the  warm  spring  rains  pass 
quickly  to  the  subsoil  and  warm  the  soil  (77). 
The  more  open  seed-bed  will  allow  a  freer  circu- 
lation of  warm  air  through  the  soil. 

261.  The  best  machines  for  planting  maize 
are  those  which  deposit  the  seed  one  to  two 
inches  below  the   surface  in  the  fine,  moist  soil, 


154  THE     PRINCIPLES     OF     AGRICrLTURE 

and  compa<^t  the  surface  soil  over  the  seed  by 
means  of  concave  wheels  about  eight  inches 
wide,  while  the  spaces  between  the  rows  are  not 
compacted.  The  maize  may  be  cultivated  and 
harrowed  before  the  plants  appear,  since  the 
rows  may  be  easily  followed  by  the  marks  left  by 
the  concave  roller  wheels.  The  frequent  inter- 
tillage  which  will  be  required  to  destroy  weeds, 
to  preserve  the  earth -mulch,  and  to  set  free 
plant -food,  will  compact  the  subsurface  soil 
quite  as  much  as  is  desirable  . 

■ic.   Potatoes 

262.  The  potato  should  be  planted  deep  and 
left  with  uncompactM  surface  soil.  The  seed 
potato  contains  about  75  per  cent  of  moisture, 
and  has  a  large  quantity  of  stored  food  for 
nourishing  the  buds  and  sending  up  strong 
shoots.  It  thrives  best  in  a  cool,  moist  soil ; 
and  this  condition  is  secured  if  it  is  planted 
about  four  inches  deep. 

263.  It  should  also  be  remembered  that  pota- 
toes are  enlarged  underground  branches,  and 
that  the  new  tubers  preferably  grow  above  the 
seed -tuber.  If  the  seed -tuber  be  planted  shal- 
low, the  branch  or  stem  above  the  seed  is  so 
short  that  there  is  little  room  for  underground 
stems. 

264.  Usually  potatoes  should  not  be  hilled  at 


PREPARATION  OF  LAND  FOR  THE  SEED     155 

the  last  cultivation,  for  at  that  time  the  potatoes 
will  have  begun  to  form  near  the  surface  or  in 
the  subsurface  soil,  according  to  soil  conditions, 
moisture,  climate  and  variety.  Then,  to  throw  a 
mass  of  dirt  on  top  of  these  underground  stems, 
after  they  have  chosen  the  best  position  for 
highest  development,  is  to  force  them  to  adapt 
themselves  to  new  conditions. 

SUGGESTIOXS    OX   CHAPTER  X 

242«.  Iq  this  chapter,  the  word  seed  is  used  in  its  general 
agricultural  sense,  to  designate  seeds  or  other  parts  (as  tubers) 
which  are  planted  for  field  crops. 

243rt.  A  seed-bed  is  the  soil  in  which  the  seed  is  planted  or 
sown.  It  may  be  the  size  of  a  window  box.  a  hotbed  frame,  a 
garden  bed,  or  a  field  of  wheat. 

244rt.  The  sprouts  which  appear  on  potatoes  in  cellars  are 
supplied  from  the  nutriment  stored  in  the  tuber.  If  a  winter 
branch  of  a  tree  is  stood  in  water  in  a  warm  room,  leaves  and 
sometimes  flowers  will  appear  in  the  course  of  a  few  weeks  ;  and 
the  growth  is  made  from  the  nutriment  stored  in  the  twig.  All 
seeds  have  stored  nutriment,  but  the  small  ones  have  very  little, 
and  it  may  be  exhausted  before  the  plantlets  can  get  a  foothold  in 
the  soil.  The  better  and  finer  the  seed-bed,  the  sooner  the  plant- 
let  can  establish  itself. 

250a.  The  subsurface  soil  is  that  lying  just  below  the  surface, 
—between  the  surface  and  the  subsoil.  It  is  the  lower  part  of  the 
soil  which  has  been  loosened  by  the  plow, — that  part  which  is 
below  the  reach  of  the  surface  tilling. 

2506.  The  subsurface  soil  may  be  compacted  by  rolling  (102), 
after  which  the  surface  is  loosened  by  harrowing.  When  land  is 
given  much  surface  tillage,  as  for  wheat,  the  tramping  of  the 
horses  compacts  the  under  soil.  Loose,  sandy  lands  may  be 
plowed  shallow  in  order  to  keep  tho  subsurface  compact  (94). 


■'S^^^ 


^^^'3-- 


rig 


Lii  moisl 


soiL 


--:     ,  -1'  ;:.,';-■-.   6. ■  .^»—i,  rig,  CI.     The  result  of  too  loose  soil, 

li  ii-i  Is.—  and  manure  plowed  imder. 


PREPARATION  OF  THE  LAND  FOR  SEED 


15T 


Fig.  62.    The  ideal  condition. 


251o.  The  Fig.  58  shows  a  drained  soil  supplied  with  mois- 
ture held  by  capillarity  in  the  smaller  interstices,  while  the 
larger  channels  have  been  relieved  of  free  water  by  percolation. 
Fig.  59  represents  a  supersaturated  soil  from  which  air  and  heat 
are  largely  excluded.  If 
seeds  remain  for  a  few  days 
in  this  undrained  soil  they 
fail  to  germinate,  and  may 
rot.  Should  stagnant  water 
remain  in  the  soil  for  some 
time  after  the  plants  have 
appeared  above  ground,  they 
will  turn  yellow,  and  may 
perish  (194) .  All  this  empha- 
sizes the  necessity  of  prepar- 
ing a  seed-bed  adapted  to  the 
wants  of  the  plant  to  be 
grown,  and  of  maintaining 
such  soil  conditions  as  are 
best  suited  to  the  wants  of 
the  plant  during  its  entire 
period  of  growth. 

253a.  "Care  should  be 
exercised  not  to  sow  very 
small  and  slow-germinating 
seeds,  as  celery,  carrot, 
onion,  in  poorly  prepared 
soil  or  in  land  which  Dakes. 
With  such  seeds   it  is  well 

to  sow  seeds  of  radish  or  turnip,  for  these  germinate  quickly 
and  break  the  crust,  and  also  mark  the  row,  so  that  tillage  may 
be  begun  before  the  regular-crop  seeds  are  up." — Bailey,  Gar- 
den-Making, p.  37. 

255a.  The  expense  of  preparing  the  land  can  often  be  ma- 
terially diminished  if  the  land  is  plowed  some  little  time  before  it 
is  planted,  in  such  a  way  that  the  elements  can  act  upon  the  soil 
through  the  process  of   weathering.     In  such  cases,  the  furrow- 


Fig.  63.    The  result  of  shallow  planting. 


158  THE     PRINCIPLES     OF     AGRICULTURE 

slice  is  not  laid  flat,  but  left  at  an  angle  of  about  forty -five 
degrees,  tiiat  the  soil  may  become  warmed  for  the  purpose  of 
promoting  chemical  action  and  the  liberation  of  plant -food.  It 
may  also  serve  to  hasten  the  drying  of  the  land  (95). 

255ft.  Summer-fallowing  is  often  an  advisable  means  of  pre- 
paring the  seed-bed.  It  consists  of  two  or  more  summer  plow- 
ings  and  several  harrowings.  the  land  remaining  idle.  Fallowed 
lands  are  usually  sown  to  wheat  in  the  fall.  An  ideal  seed-bed 
can  be  secured  by  this  means.  Fallowing  is  to  be  advised  when 
lands  are  very  story,  stumpy,  hard,  or  when  they  have  become 
foul  with  bad  weeds,  or  have  been  injured  by  plowing  or  ditching 
when  too  wet.  It  is  a  means  of  putting  the  land  right.  The 
better  the  condition  of  the  land, — that  is,  the  better  the  farming. 
— the  less  the  necessity  of  summer-fallowing.  The  practice  is 
becoming  less  common,  largely  because  modern  implements  and 
methods  enable  us  to  handle  the  land  better. 

258a.  The  pictures  will  make  this  reasoning  plain.  Fig.  60 
represents  a  wheat  plant  in  the  fall,  on  properly  handled  land. 
The  roots  are  near  the  surface.  Fig.  61  shows  how  the  roots 
strike  deep  when  manure  is  plowed  under  and  the  soil  is  left 
loose  :  and  this  plant  stands  less  chances  of  success  than  the 
other. 

263a.  The  accompanying  figures,  which  are  made  directly 
from  nature,  illustrate  the  point  that  deep  planting  in  well-pre- 
pared land  tends  to  result  in  a  deep  and  spreading  hill  of  potatoes 
(Fig.  62),  whereas  shallow  planting  in  poorly  prepared  land  results 
in  a  shallow  and  crowded  hill  (Fig.  63  I.  The  better  potatoes  mav 
be  expected  in  the  former  case. 


Chaptek  XI 

SUBSEQUENT    CARE   OF   THE    PLANT 

1.  By  Means  of  Tillage 
la.  In  general 

265.  Tillage  is  the  first  consideration  in  the 
care  of  the  plant.  This  is  emphatically  true  in 
the  field;  but  in  the  glass-house  tillage  is  reduced 
to  a  minimum,  in  part  because  the  preparation  of 
the  soil  is  so  thorough. 

266.  The  objects  of  tillage,  in  the  care  of  the 
plant  subsequent  to  seeding  or  planting,  are 
three :  {a)  to  supply  plant-food,  by  rendering 
the  soil  constituents  available ;  {h)  to  supply 
moisture  ;  (c)  to  destroy  weeds.  The  first  two 
captions  have  been  discussed  in  Chapters  ii., 
iii.,  iv. 

267.  (c)  Weeds  are  only  incidental  difficul- 
ties. They  are  the  results  of  faulty  management 
of  the  land.  If  the  first  attention  is  given  to  the 
crops  and  the  land,  the  question  of  weeds  will 
largely  take  care  of  itself.  It  is  less  important 
to  know  the  kinds  of  weeds  than  it  is  to  know 
how  to  till  and  to  crop  the  land. 

(159) 


160  THE     PRINCIPLES     OF     AGRICULTURE 

268.  There  are  four  general  means  of  keeping 
weeds  in  check  :  (a)  by  good  tillage  (101,  101a) ; 
(b)  by  rotation  of  crops,  by  means  of  which  any 
one  kind  of  weed  is  prevented  fi'om  becoming 
thoroughly  established  ;  (c)  by  complete  occupa- 
tion of  the  land  with  crops, — for  weeds  find  op- 
poi-tunity  when  the  ground  is  not  fully  occupied, 
as  in  old  and  thin  meadows  ;  (d)  by  IdUiug  the 
weeds  directly. 

269.  Sui-face  tillage  should  be  given  as  often 
as  the  gi'ound  becomes  hard,  or  whenever  the 
earth-mulch  needs  repaiiing  (100).  Under  gen- 
eral conditions,  tilled  crops,  as  maize  and  pota- 
toes, should  be  cultivated  every  ten  days  or  two 
weeks,  particularly  early  in  the  season.  As  soon 
as  low  crops  cover  the  ground,  and  thereby  afiord 
a  mulch,  cultivation  may  cease. 

270.  Sowed  crops  can  often  be  tilled  once  or 
twice  to  advantage  very  early  in  the  season,  by 
running  a  fine- toothed  harrow  over  them.  Thus, 
wheat  and  maize  are  now  often  haiTowed  iu  early 
spring.  The  harrowing  destroys  but  few  plants, 
while  it  loosens  the  soil,  and  conserves  moisture 
before  much  has  been  lost  by  hot  weather.  Har- 
rowing meadows  and  pastures  causes  the  plants 
to  tiUer  or  to  stool  out,  and  thereby  to  cover 
the  ground  more  completely  ;  it  also  breaks  the 
old,  hard  roots  and  causes  new  feeders  to  appear, 
thereby  re -invigorating  the  plants. 


SUBSEQUENT  CARE  OF  THE  PLANT       161 

16.  In  fruit  plantations 

271.  Tillage  gives  the  same  results  in  fruit 
plantations  as  with  annual  crops,  and  it  also  has 
particular  advantages  in  such  cases  :  it  causes 
the  roots  of  the  trees  or  bushes  to  strike  deep 
into  the  soil  and  thereby  to  find  moisture  in  dry 
times,  and  it  has  a  decided  effect  in  keeping  down 
the  ravages  of  insects  and  the  incursions  of  dis- 
eases by  destroying  breeding-places  and  burying 
diseased  foliage  and  fruit. 

272.  Since  fruit  trees  and  bushes  send  their 
roots  so  deep  into  the  soil,  they  are  better  able 
to  withstand  neglect  of  tillage  than  annual  crops 
are.  There  has  thus  arisen  a  general  belief  that 
orchards  do  best  in  sod ;  but  in  most  cases  of 
successful  sod  orchards  the  trees  thrive  in  spite 
of  the  sod,  not  because  of  it. 

273.  It  is  particularly  important  to  till  fruit 
plantations  early  in  their  life.  Apples  should 
generally  be  tilled  for  at  least  the  first  ten  years. 
The  plants  thereby  get  a  good  start  and  come 
into  bearing  early  ;  and  the  habit  acquired  in  the 
first  years  is  apt  to  continue.  The  ti'eatment 
given  in  the  early  period  usually  determines  the 
success  of  the  fruit  plantation. 

274.  The  fruit  plantation  may  need  tillage 
throughout  all  the  years  of  its  existence,  and,  as 
a  matter  of  fact,  it  usually  does  need  it.     But  if 


162  THE    PKDs'CIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

the  trees  or  bushes  tend  to  grow  too  fast,  so  that 
they  do  not  bear,  or  become  top-heavy,  or  do  not 
stand  the  winter,  they  may  be  checked  b^^  put- 
ting the  plantation  in  sod  ;  but  even  then,  the 
sod  is  only  a  temporaiy  expedient.  If  the  man- 
agement of  the  plantation  has  been  right,  it  is 
doubtful  if  sod  can  ever  be  an  advantage, — or  at 
least  with  none  of  the  common  fruits,  except 
possibly  apples  and  pears. 

275.  All  fruit  plants  start  into  growth  veiy 
early  in  the  season.  Therefore,  tillage  should  be 
begun  the  moment  the  ground  is  fit ;  and  it 
should  be  continued  unremittingly  until  the  time 
arrives  for  all  tillage  to  cease. 

276.*  The  growth  on  fruit  plants  generally 
ceases  by  midsummer.  Therefore,  tillage  may 
stop  at  niidseason  or  early  fall ;  and  at  the  last 
tillage  a  cover-crop  may  be  sown  (109,  114,  116). 
Stopping  the  tillage  early  allows  the  X->lants  to 
mature  their  gro^.th,  and  thereby  be  more  likely 
to  escape  winter  injury ;  and  it  lessens  the  dan- 
ger of  overgrowth.  If  the  ti-ees  are  camming  a 
heavy  crop,  however,  it  may  be  necessaiy  to 
continue  the  tillage  in  order  to  supply  the  fruit 
with  moisture,  especially  if  the  land  or  the 
season  is  dry. 

277.  The  tillage  of  fruit-plantations  usually 
consists  of  a  spring  plowing,  followed  by  har- 
rowing.    If  the  land  has   been  well   handled   in 


SUBSEQUENT  CARE  OF  THE  PLANT       163 

the  first  few  years,  deep  and  heavy  plowing  will 
not  be  needed  when  an  orchard  comes  to  ma- 
turity. Light  gang-plows,  or  even  cultivators, 
may  then  be  sufiBcient  for  the  first  breaking  of 
the  soil  in  spring. 

2.   By  Means  of  Pruning  and    Training 
2a.   Pnoiing   vs.   training 

278.  Pruning  is  the  removing  of  certain  parts 
of  plants  for  the  purpose  of  augmenting  the 
welfare  of  the  plant  or  to  secure  more,  larger 
or  better  products  (as  better  fruit  or  flowers). 
Training  is  the  trimming  or  shaping  of  the  plant 
into  some  particular  or  desired  form.  Success- 
ful pruning  depends  upon  principles  of  plant 
growth ;  training  depends  upon  the  personal 
ideal  of  the  pruner. 

279.  Nature  prunes.  In  every  plant,  more 
branches  start  than  can  ever  mature  ;  and  many 
buds  are  suppressed  before  they  have  made 
branches.  Every  tree  top,  if  left  to  itself,  will 
sooner  or  later  contain  many  dead  branches. 
There  is  a  struggle  for  existence  amongst  the 
branches,  and  the  weakest  die. 

2b.    Tlie   hPdling  of  wounds 

280.  Pruning  depends  upon  two  sets  of  fac- 
tors,— upon  the  questions  concerned  in  the  heal- 


164  THE     PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

ing  of  wounds  and  the  injury  to  the  plant,  and 
upon  the  general  results  which  it  is  desired  to 
attain.  Knowing  how  wounds  affect  the  plant, 
the  pruner  should  then  have  a  definite  purpose 
in  view  when  he  cuts  a  limb. 

281.  The  proper  healing  of  wounds  depends 
primarily  upon  («)  the  kind  of  plant  (observe 
that  peach  trees  heal  less  readily  than  apples), 
(b)  the  vigor  of  the  plant,  (c)  the  position  of  the 
wound  on  the  plant  (wounds  on  strong  main 
limbs  heal  better  than  those  on  weak  or  side 
limbs),  (d)  the  length  of  the  stump — the  shorter 
the  stump  the  quicker  the  healing, — (e)  the 
character  of  the  wound  as  to  smoothness  or 
roughness. 

282.  Other  matters  which  determine  the 
proper  healing  of  a  large  wound  are  (/)  the 
healthfulness  of  the  wood,  (g)  the  season  of  the 
year  in  which  the  cut  is  made,  (h)  the  protec- 
tion which  the  wound  receives. 

283.  (g)  Other  things  being  the  same,  wounds 
heal  quicker  when  made  in  the  early  part  of  the 
gi'owing  season, — that  is,  in  late  spring  ;  but  the 
factors  mentioned  in  281  are  more  important 
than  the  season. 

284.  (h)  Dressings  do  not,  of  themselves, 
hasten  the  healing  of  wounds,  but  they  may 
keep  the  wound  sound  and  healthy  until  it  heals 
of  itself.     A  good  dressing  is  one  which  is  anti- 


SUBSEQUENT  CARE  OF  THE  PLANT       165 

septic  and  durable,  \Yliich  affords  mechanical 
protection,  and  which  does  not  of  itself  injure 
the  tissue  of  the  plant. 

2c.    The  principles  of  pruning 

285.  "We  prune  («)  to  modify  the  vigor  of  the 
plant,  (6)  to  produce  larger  and  better  fruits  or 
flowers,  {c)  to  keep  the  plant  within  manage- 
able shape  and  limits,  {d)  to  make  the  plant 
bear  more  or  bear  less,  (e)  to  remove  super- 
fluous or  injured  parts,  (/)  to  facilitate  spray- 
ing and  harvesting,  {g)  to  facilitate  tillage, 
{h)  to  make  the  plant  assume  some  desu*ed  form 
(properly,  training) . 

286.  Heavy  pruning  of  the  top  tends  to 
increase  growth,  or  the  production  of  wood. 
Heavy  pruning  of  the  root  tends  to  lessen  the 
production  of  wood.  Water- sprouts  generally 
follow  heavy  pruning,  particularly  if  the  pruning 
is  performed  in  winter. 

287.  Checking  growth,  so  long  as  the  plant 
remains  healthy,  tends  to  cause  overgrown  plants 
to  bear.  One  means  of  checking  growth  is  to 
withhold  fertilizers  and  tillage ;  another  is  to 
resort  to  root- pruning  ;  another  is  to  head- in  or 
cut -back  the  young  shoots.  Some  plants,  how- 
ever, bear  most  profusely  when  they  are  very 
vigorous  ;  but  they  are  such,  for  the  most  part, 
as  have    been   moderately   and  continuously  vig- 


166  THE     PRINCIPLES     OF     AGRICULTURE 

orous  from  the  beginning,  rather  than  those 
which  are  forced  into  very  heavy  growth  after  a 
long  period  of  neglect. 

288.  The  heading- in  of  young  growths  tends 
to  force  out  the  side  shoots  and  to  develop  the 
dormant  buds.  The  more  a  plant  is  headed-in, 
therefore,  the  more  thinning- out  it  will  require. 
Heading-in  induces  fmitfulness  by  checking 
growth  and  by  encouragiug  the  formation  of 
side  spurs  (upon  which  fruit  may  be  borne). 

289.  Heavy  pruning  every  few  years — which 
is  the  custom — tends  to  keep  trees  over-vigorous 
and  unproductive.  Mild  pruning  every  year 
maintaias  the  equilibrium  of  the  plant,  and  tends 
to  make  it  fiTiitful. 

3.  By  Keeping  Enemies  in  Check 
3.7.    Tlie  kinds  of  enemies 

290.  Of  plant  enemies  or  diseases,  there  are 
three  main  types, — insects,  parasitic  fungi,  con- 
stitutional or  physiological  ti'oubles. 

291.  Insect  pests  are  of  two  general  types,  so 
far  as  their  method  of  feeding  is  concerned, — 
insects  which  chew,  or  bite  off  pieces  of  the  plant, 
and  those  which  suck  their  food  from  the  juices 
of  the  plant.  In  the  former  class  are  the  worms 
and  beetles  ;  in  the  latter  are  plant -lice,  scale 
iusects,    and    the    so-called    tiTie    bugs    (as    the 


SUBSEQUENT  CARE  OF  THE  PLANT        167 

squash-bug  or  stink-bug,  and  the  leaf-hoppers) . 
We  may  classify  injurious  insects  again,  without 
reference  to  their  mode  of  taking  food,  into 
those  which  live  and  feed  on  the  outside  of  the 
plant,  and  those  which,  as  borers  and  apple- 
worms,  burrow  and  feed  inside  the  tissue. 

292.  Of  fungous  pests,  the  farmer  may  recog- 
nize two  groups, — those  which  live  wholly  on  the 
outside  of  the  host  (as  the  powdery  mildew  of 
the  gi'ape,  pea  mildew),  and  those  which  live 
wholly  or  in  part  inside  the  tissues  (as  apple- 
scab,  black-knot,  potato  mildew).  Most  inju- 
rious fungi  are  of  the  latter  kind.  Fungous 
troubles  are  nearly  always  marked  by  definitely 
diseased  spots  on  the  leaves  or  twigs. 

293.  Physiological  or  constitutional  troubles 
are  those  which  affect  the  whole  plant  or  an 
entire  leaf  or  branch,  and  the  cause  of  which  is 
not  apparent  on  the  exterior.  These  troubles 
may  be  due  to  germs  or  bacteria  working  within 
the  tissues  (as  pear-blight),  or  to  some  difficulty 
in  the  nutrition  of  the  plant.  These  troubles 
are  generally  not  marked  by  definitely  diseased 
spots  or  blemishes,  but  by  the  gradual  dying  of 
an  entire  leaf,  branch  or  plant. 

3b.   The  preventives  and  remedies 

294.  Keeping  the  plants  vigorous  and  healthy 
is  the  first  step  towards  the  control  of  pests  and 


168  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRiCULTURE 

diseases.  Clean  tillage,  rotation  of  crops,  plant- 
ing varieties  which  are  least  liable  to  attack,  and 
careful  attention  to  prevent  all  the  conditions 
which  seem  to  favor  the  breeding  of  insects  and 
the  spread  of  diseases,  are  quite  as  important  as 
destroying  the  enemies  ;  for  "an  ounce  of  pre- 
vention is  worth  a  pound  of  cure." 

295.  Insects  are  destroyed  by  three  general 
means  :  (a)  by  killing  them  directly,  as  by  hand- 
picking,  digging  out  borers  ;  (6)  by  killing  them 
by  means  of  some  caustic  application  to  their 
bodies ;  (c)  by  poisoning  them  by  poisoning 
their  food.  In  some  instances,  insects  may  be 
kept  away  by  covering  the  plants  with  some 
material,  as  lime,  to  which  the  insects  object ; 
but  this  method  of  fighting  insects  is  usually 
unsatisfactory.  A  substance  which  is  used  to 
destroy  an  insect  is  called  an  insecticide. 

296.  (h)  The  caustic  applications  or  insecti- 
cides must  be  used  for  those  insects  which  suck 
their  food  (291).  Kerosene,  kerosene  emulsion, 
soap  washes,  lime-and-sulfur,  miscible  oils,  to- 
bacco, and  the  like,  are  the  materials  used;  and 
plant-lice,  scale  insects,  plant-bugs,  thrips,  and 
leaf-hoppers  are  the  insects  thus  treated. 

297.  (c)  The  poisonous  applications  are  used 
for  the  chewing  insects  that  prey  upon  the 
outside  of  the  plant  (not  for  borers,  which  are 
usually  dug  out) .   Paris  green  and  other  arsenicals 


SUBSEQUENT  CARE  OF  THE  PLANT       169 

and  white  hellebore  are  the  materials  commonly 
used  ;  and  worms,  potato -bugs,  and  all  leaf- 
chewing  pests,  are  the  insects  thus  treated. 

298.  Fungi  are  killed  by  materials  which  con- 
tain sulfur  or  copper.  Fungi  which  live  inside 
the  leaf  or  stem  (292)  cannot  be  killed  directly 
by  applications,  but  the  parts  which  project  into 
the  air  (the  fruiting  portions)  can  be  destroyed 
and  the  fungus  thereby  weakened  and  checked  ; 
and  the  spores  (which  answer  to  seeds)  cannot 
gi'ow  on  a  surface  which  is  covered  with  copper 
or  sulfur.  The  best  treatment  of  plant  diseases, 
therefore,  is  to  make  the  application  before  the 
disease  gains  a  foothold.  A  substance  which  is 
used  to  destroy  fungi  is  called  a  fungicide. 

299.  The  best  general  fungicide  is  the  Bor- 
deaux mixture,  made  of  lime  and  sulfate  of 
copper.  It  not  only  destroys  the  fungi,  but 
adheres  long  to  the  plant.  Another  good  fungi- 
cide is  carbonate  of  copper  ;  and  it  is  preferred 
for  ornamental  plants  and  for  late  application  to 
fruit,  because  it  does  not  discolor  or  soil  the 
leaves  or  fruits. 

300.  The  application  of  insecticides  and  fun- 
gicides is  usually  made  in  water,  with  a  syringe 
or  pump,  or  by  means  of  a  spray  ;  and  thereby 
h^s  arisen  the  practice  of  spraying. 

301.  In  order  that  spraying  shall  be  success- 
ful,  it  must  (a)  apply  the   materials  which  will 


170  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGEICULTrRE 

destroy  the  pest  in  question  and  yet  not  injure 
the  plant,  (6)  be  thoroughly  done,  so  that  no 
part  of  the  plant  is  left  unprotected,  (c)  be 
performed  the  moment  the  enemy  appears,  or,  in 
the  case  of  fungous  diseases,  as  soon  as  there  is 
reason  to  believe  that  the  pest  is   coining. 

302.  The  best  machine  or  pump  is  the  one 
which  throws  the  finest  spray  the  farthest  dis- 
tance. Other  factors  are  the  capacity  of  the 
pump,  its  strength,  its  durability,  its  lightness, 
the  ease  with  which  it  works. 

303.  Spraying  will  not  keep  all  fungous  dis- 
eases in  check  ;  and,  in  any  case,  it  should  be 
supplemented  by  sanitation,  as  by  burning  or 
burying  the  fallen  diseased  leaves  and  fruits,  the 
cutting  away  of  infected  parts,  and  the  like. 
Some  fungous  diseases,  as  the  grain  smuts,  are 
carried  over  from  year  to  year  in  the  seed  ;  and 
the  proper  treatment  is  to  soak  the  seed  in  a 
fungicide.  The  constitutional  diseases  (293) 
must  be  treated  by  other  means  than  spraying, 
usually  by  burning  the  affected  part  or  plant 
(294,  294a). 

SCGGBSTIOyS    Oy    CHAPTEB    XI 

267a.  "The  daisy -enrsed  meadows  of  the  East  are  those 
^hic-h  hare  been  long  mown  and  are  badly  'run,'  or  else  those 
which  were  not  properly  made,  and  the  grass  obtained  but  a 
poor  start.     The  farmer  may  say  that  the  daisies  have  'run  out' 


SUBSEQUENT  CARE  OF  THE  PLANT 


171 


the  grass,  but  the  fact  is  that  the  meadow  began  to  fail,  and  the 
daisies  quickly  seized  upon  the  opportunity  to  gain  a  foot- 
hold. *  *  *  The  weedy  lawns  are  those  which  have  a 
thiu  turf,  and  the  best  treatment  is  to  scratch  the  ground 
lightly  with  an  iron-toothed  rake,  apply  fertilizer,  and  sow  more 
seed."  "The  agricultural  conditions  in  the  Dakotas  and  other 
parts  of  our  Plains  region  are  just  such  as  to  encourage  a  hardy 
intruder  like  the  Russian  thistle.  An  average  of  eight  or  nine 
bushels  of  wheat  per  acre  is  itself  proof  of  superficial  farming; 


Fig.  64.     A  gang-plow. 


Fig.  65.    A  light  gang-plow 
for  very  shallow  work. 


but  the  chief  fault  with  this  western  agriculture  is  the  continu- 
ous cropping  with  one  crop, —  wheat." — Bailey,  '^Survival  of  the 
Unlike,"  pp.  196,  195. 

270rt.  Maize  may  be  harrowed  until  it  is  four  inches  high. 
The  plants  will  straighten  up.  This  harrowing  is  cheaper  than 
cultivating;  and  if  the  land  is  put  in  good  condition  very  early 
in  the  life  of  the  crop,  much  less  subsequent  tillage  is  required. 
In  general,  narrow-toothed  harrows  should  be  used  (Fig.  24), 
but  the  style  of  tool  must  be  adapted  to  the  particular  land  in 
question. 

277a.  If  the  plowing  has  been  thorough  for  the  first  few 
years  after  the  orchard  is  planted,  the  ground  should  be  so 
mellow  that  very  light  plowing  will  answer  thereafter.  There 
will  be  no  sod  to  tear  up  and  to  plow  under,  and  the  tree  roots 
will  be  deep  in  the  ground,  where  they  can  find  moisture.  A 
gang-plow  (Fig.  64)   should  be  sufficient  for  the  spring  plowing 


172 


THE     PRINCIPLES     OF     AGRICULTURE 


in  most  mature  orchards,  unless  there  is  a  heavy  growth  of 
cover-erop  to  plow  nnder.  A  tool  for  still  shallower  plowing  is 
shown  in  Fig.  65.  This  is  excellent  for  orchards  on  light  or 
loose  soils,  although  its  height  makes  it  more  difficult  to  handle 


^-.-  .t 


Fig.  66.    The  proper  way  to 

make  the  woitnd. 


Pig.  C7.    The  wrong  way  to 
make  the  cut. 


about  low-headed  trees.  For  full  discussions  of  the  tilling  of 
fruit  plantations,  see  "Principles  of  Fruit -Growiug,"  Chapter  iii. 
278a.  If  some  of  the  limbs  are  taken  from  an  apple  tree  for 
the  purpose  of  making  it  bear  better,  the  operation  is  pruning  ; 
if  the  tree  is  sheared  or  trimmed  to  make  it  round-headed,  the 
operation  is  training.  A  rose  or  a  grape-vine  may  be  pruned 
by  cutting  away  part  of  the  wood ;  it  may  be  trained  on  wires 
or  to  the  side  of  a  house. 


SUBSEQUENT  CARE  OF  THE  PLANT       173 

279rt.  On  the  subject  of  the  struggle  for  existence  in  the 
tree  top,  consult,  Observation  iv.  in  "Lessons  with  Plants,"  and 
Chapter  i.  in  "Pruning-Book."  The  philosophical  bearings  of 
this  fact  of  competition  are  presented 
in  Essay  iii.,  "Survival  of  the  Unlike." 

281a.  Other  things  being  equal,  the 
closer  the  wound  to  the  branch,  the 
quicker  it  will  heal.  The  smoother  the 
wound,  the  better  and  quicker  it  will 
heal.  Figs.  66  and  67  illustrate  right  y, 
and  wrong  methods.  For  full  dis- 
cussion of  the  healing  of  wounds,  read 
Chapter  iii.  in  the  "Pruning-Book." 

284a .  An  antiseptic  dressing  is  one 
which  prevents  germs  or  microbes  from 
growing  on  the  surface  of  the  wound  ; 
for  the  decay  which  follows  wounds  is 
the  work  of  germs  and  fungi.  In  gen- 
eral, the   best  dressing  for  wounds  is  „  ^    ,     «  ,    ^   ^ 

'  T^        .  ,        ,  ,  Fig-  68.    Work  of  the  bud-moth 

lead  pamt.    Wax  is  not  durable  enough,        i^rva.-a  chewing  insect, 
nor  is  it  antiseptic.     Bordeaux  mixture 

is  good  for  its  antiseptic   properties,   but  is  not  durable,  and   it 
affords  little  protection  from  the  weather. 

285a.  The  principles  of  pruning  are  discussed  under  twenty 
heads  in  Chapter  iv.  of  "Pruning-Book." 

291a.  The  chewing  or  biting  insects  eat  up  the  parts  upon 
which  they  prey.  Fig.  68  is  an  example  of  such  work.  The 
sucking  insects  do  not  eat  up  the  part,  but  they  often  leave  dis- 
tinct marks  of  their  work,  as  in  Fig.  69.  A  plant-bug  is  shown 
in  Fig.  70.  The  true  weevils  and  curculios  are  biting  insects, 
although  they  have  snouts  (Fig.  71). 

292c.  A  fungus  is  a  plant.  It  is  destitute  of  chlorophyll  or 
leaf-green.  It  lives  on  living  organisms  (or  is  parasitic),  or  on 
dead  or  decaying  matter  (or  is  saprophytic,  as  mushrooms  and 
toadstools).  Some  kinds,  as  toadstools,  are  large  and  con- 
spicuous ;  others,  as  molds,  are  small  and  fragile  ;  while  still 
others  are  nearly  or  quite  microscopic.     The  plural  of  fungus  is 


174 


THE     PRINCIPLES     OF    AGRICULTUBE 


fungi  (rarely  written  funguses).  As  an  adjective,  the  word  is 
written  fungous,  as  a  fungous  disease.  A  fungoid  disease  is  a 
fungus-like  disease,  the  exact  origin  of  which  may  not  be  known 
or  specified.  Rusts,  mildews  and  leaf -blights  are  types  of  fun- 
gous diseases. 

2926.    The  plant  or  the  animal  upon  or  in  which  a  parasitic 
fungus  lives  is  known  as  its  host.     The  fungus  injures  its  hcst  by 


Fig.  69. 


Work  of  the  four-lined  leaf-bug — a  snckiag  insert — on  ctirrant 
foliage. 


robbing  it  of  nutriment  and  sometimes  by  breaking  up  its  cellular 
structure,  and  by  obstructing  the  breathing-pores  and  interfering 
with  the  movement  of  its  fluids. 

2936.    Physiological  troubles  may  be  termed  internal  troublee, 
although  the  germs  which  cause  some  of   them  enter  from  the 


SUBSEQCJENT  CARE  OF  THE  PLANT       175 

outside.  There  is  no  external  growth  of  a  fungus,  and  rarely  any 
well  defined  small  spots  on  the  leaves.  Fig.  72  shows  the  spots  of 
a  fungous  disease  ;  if  this  leaf  had  been  attacked  by  a  bacterial 
or  physiological  disease,  the  entire  leaf  would  probably  have 
shown  signs  of  failing,  for  the  food  supply  is  usualh'  cut  off  in 
the  leaf-stalk  or  the  main  veins.  In  Fig.  72,  however,  each  spot 
represents  a  distinct  attack  of  the  fungus. 
Fig.  73  is  a  type  of  physiologial  trouble,  the 
edge  of  the  leaf  dying  from  the  cutting-ofl  of 
its  food  supply  ;  this  dead  border  will  widen 
until  the  leaf   dies. 

294a.  Physicians  treat  some  diseases  by 
prophylaxis, — that  is,  by  giving  attention  to 
means  of  sanitation  and  of  preventing  the 
spread  of  the  disorder.  Farmers  must  do  the 
same.  Wire-worms  are  rarely  troublesome  Fig.  70.  The  tarni.shed 
in  short  and  quick  rotations,  particularly   in      P'ant-bug.-a  sucking 

lIlS6Ct 

those  in  which  sod  is  not  a  prominent  fea- 
ture.     Club-root    of   the    cabbage    is    rarely 
troublesome   on  land    which   has   not   grown      ^^ 
cabbages  or   allied    plants    for  a  few  years. 
Apple-scab  is  least  serious  in  those  orchards   Fig.  71.  The  strawberry 
which  have  been  thoroughly  sprayed  in  pre-       weevil,  —  a   chewing 
vious   years.     Plum-rot  is  least  troublesome      insect, 
when  the  fruit  is  well  thinned.     Rose-bugs  seldom  trouble  vine- 
yards which  are  on  strong  or  heavy  lands. 

296a.  Kerosene  emulsion  may  be  made  as  follows:  Hard, 
soft  or  whalp-oil  soap,  yi  lb.;  water,  1  gal.;  kerosene,  2  gals. 
Dissolve  the  soap  in  hot  water;  remove  from  the  fire  and  while 
still  hot  add  the  kerosene.  Pump  the  liquid  back  into  itself 
for  five  or  ten  minutes  or  until  it  becomes  a  creamy  mass.  If 
properly  made,  the  oil  will  not  separate  out  on  cooling.  For  use 
on  dormant  trees,  dilute  with  from  5  to  7  parts  of  water.  For 
killing  plant-lice  on  foliage,  dilute  with  10  to  15  parts  water. 

Crude  oil  emulsion  is  made  in  the  same  way  by  substituting 
crude  oil  in  place  of  kerosene. 


4W% 


176 


THE     PRDCCrPLES     OF     AGRICULTURE 


297a .  The  Paris  green  mixture  is  eompoanded  by  using  Paris 
green  1  pound,  water  150  to  300  gallons.  If  this  mixture  is  to 
be  used  upon  fruit  trees,  1  pound  of  quicklime  should  be  added. 
Repeated  applications  will  injure  most  foliage,  unless  the  lime  is 
used.     Paris  green  may  be  added  to  Bordeaux  mixture. 

297b.  Arsenate  of  lead  is  now  much  used  for  ehewing  insects. 
This  can  be  applied  in  a  stronger  mixture  than  other  arsenical 


Fl£.  72.    The  spots  of  holirfaoek 


izjiecms  disease. 


poisons  without  Injuring  the  foliage.  It  is,  therefore,  much  used 
against  beetles  and  other  insects  that  are  hard  to  poison.  It  eomes 
in  the  form  of  a  paste  and  should  be  mixed  thoroughly  with  a  small 
amount  of  water  before  placing  in  Hie  sprayer,  else  the  nozzle 
will  clog.  It  is  used  in  strengths  varying  from  4  to  10  lbs.  per 
100  gallons,  depending  on  the  kind  of  insect  to  be  killed. 
Arsenate  of  lead  and  Bordeaux  mixture  can  be  combined  without 
lessening  the  value  of  either. 

297c.    The   lime-and-sulfnr  wash,   for   scale   insects,  is  now 


eUBSEQUEXT     CARE      OF     THE     PLANT 


177 


mil       >r^ 


;'^f^M 


much  used:  Quicklime,  20  Ihs.;  sulfur  (flour  or  flowers),  ]5  lbs.; 
water,  50  gals.  Place  the  lime  iu  a  kettle.  Add  hot  w;iter  grad- 
ually in  sufficient  quantity  to  produce  the  most  rapid  slaking 
of  the  lime.  When  the  lime  begins  to  slake,  add  the  sulfur  and 
stir  together.  If  convenient, 
keep  the  mixture  covered 
with  burlap  to  save  the  heat. 
After  slaking  has  ceased, 
add  more  water  and  boil  the 
mixture  one  hour.  As  the 
sulfur  goes  into  solution,  a 
rich  orange-red  or  dark  green 
color  will  appear.  After  boil- 
ing sufficiently,  add  water  to 
the  required  amount  and 
strain  into  the  spray  tank. 
The  wash  is  most  effective 
when  applied  warm.  This 
mixture  can  be  applied  safely 
only  when  the  trees  are  dor- 
mant,— late  in  the  autumn 
after  the  leaves  have  fallen,, 
or  early  in  the  spring  before  Fig.  73.  Disease  of  cucumber  leaf,  the  dying 
the  buds  swell.  margin  indicating  that  the  trouble  is  due 

299a.    Bordeaux  mixture      '**  ^"'^^  cutting-oflf  of  the  food  supply. 
is  the  standard  fungicide.    It  is  made  of  copper  sulfate,  5  lbs. ; 
stone  lime  or  quicklime  (unslaked),  5  lbs.;  water,  50  gals.     The 
strength  varies  according  to  the  plant  to   be  sprayed.     Bordeaux 
maybe  prepared  in  the  following  way: 

Copper  sulfate. — Dissolve  the  required  amount  of  copper  sul- 
fate in  water  in  the  proportion  of  one  pound  to  one  gallon  several 
hours  before  the  solution  is  needed;  suspend  the  copper  sulfate 
crystals  in  a  sack  near  the  top  of  the  water.  In  case  large  quan- 
tites  of  stock  solution  are  needed,  two  pounds  of  copper  sulfate 
raay  be  dissolved  in  one  gallon  of  water.  Lime. — Slake  the  lime 
in  a  tub  or  trough.  Add  the  water  slowly  at  first,  so  that  the  lime 
crumbles  into  a  fine  powder.    If  small  quantities  of  lime  are  used. 


'¥ 


Y 


178  THE     PRiyCTPLES    OF    AGKICULTCKE 

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"r  T  5r      Tri    .;    : ;.  :_i  -.7  ::    -,  -      -k  mixtare,  which  should 

r::     r  s    i-^i  ::   c-j  :  _:      T  7-. — Use  5  gallons  of 

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:  D   determine 

I ;  -  - : !  V -  an 


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cjanide  solu-.:-— ...1:::::-  -^-ri;:::-::;    ;_:_t_;:-:.t 

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Jissohred.     "st    :  i'7  "i-       -    :    i 
same  porp  :  —  -  15   I  : :    r:.  :r       ::    J      =   :     -  j 

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F::i:i- 


minntes,  drain  &i.i  =:"^  tiie  next  dayj. 


Chapter   XTE 
PASTURES,   MEADOWS,   AND   FORAGE 


I.  p.  ROBERTS 


1.    Grass 


304.  The  fundamental  crop  is  grass.  It 
covers  the  land  as  with  a  blanket,  prepares  the 
soil  for  other  crops,  and  affords  sustenance  for 
farm  animals. 

305.  Grass  is  one  of  the  important  crops  in 
rotations  ;  and  a  rotation  is  essential  to  general 
.husbandry  if  productiveness  of  the  land  is  main- 
tained. Rotations  improve  the  farm  {a)  because 
the  land  receives  different  treatments  in  different 
years,  so  that  faults  of  one  year  may  be  cor- 
rected the  following  year,  (&)  no  one  element  of 
plant -food  is  likely  to  be  exhausted,  (c)  one 
crop  leaves  the  land  in  best  condition  for 
another,  {d)  roots  and  stubble  of  grass,  clover 
and  cereals  improve  the  texture  of  the  soil, 
(e)  they  allow  the  use  of  clovers,  which  add 
nitrogen,  and  (/)  bring  up  food  from  the  sub- 
soil (170,  170a),  (g)  weeds  and  pests  are  kept 
in  check,  {li)  labor  is  economized. 

(179) 


180  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

306.  The  number  of  plants  of  grass  on  a 
given  area  should  be  governed  by  the  uses  for 
which  they  are  grown,  their  habits  of  growth 
and  their  size.  The  smaller  grasses  thrive  well 
if  the  plants  stand  near  together.  The  larger 
grasses,  as  maize,  should  have  much  room 
between  the  plants  or  hills.  The  plants  in  a 
pasture  field  should  be  more  numerous  than  in 
the  meadow,  and  more  numerous  in  the  meadow 
than  in  fields  devoted  to  raising  grass  seed. 

2.   Permanent   Pastures 
2a.   Preparation  of  the  land 

307.  When  the  land  is  fairly  level  and  can  be 
fitted  without  too  much  expense,  it  is  best  to 
plow  the  ground  two  or  three  times  during  the 
summer,  the  first  time  in  early  spring,  and  to 
keep  the  surface  fine  and  clean  by  frequent 
tillage.  This  treatment  improves  the  physical 
condition  of  the  soil,  destroys  weeds  and  weed 
seeds,  makes  much  dormant  plant- food  availa- 
ble, and  conserves  moisture  so  that  the  surface 
soil,  in  most  cases,  will  be  damp  enough  to  cause 
seeds  to  germinate  even  in  August. 

308.  On  friable  soils,  as  on  the  western 
prairies  and  in  some  other  places,  a  single  plow- 
ing and  frequent  shallow  surface  tillage  may  be 


PAStURES,    MEADOWS,    AND    FORAGE  181 

the  best  treatment.  On  reclaimed  boggy  lands 
which  have  been  cultivated  long  enough  to 
eradicate  wild  plants,  the  soil  is  so  light  that 
plowing  may  be  unnecessary.  Here  a  little 
scarifying  of  the  surface  and  frecpent  use  of  the 
roller  will  likely  give  best  results. 

309.  A  good  pasture  may  also  be  secured  by 
less  expensive  preparation,  if  more  time  is  taken. 
When  rolling  land  has  been  devoted  to  the  pro- 
duction of  cereals  and  hay  until  the  soil  fails  to 
produce  satisfactory  crops,  it  is  often  wise  to 
abandon  the  unprofitable  rotation  and  to  devote 
the  land  to  permanent  pasturage  ;  but  few  per- 
sons are  willing  to  spend  as  much  time  and 
money  as  will  be  necessary  to  secure  a  good 
pasture  at  once.  In  that  case,  sow  a  liberal 
quantity  of  pasture  seeds  in  a  crop  of  thinly 
seeded  wheat,  rye,  barley  or  buckwheat,  the  land 
ha\ing  been  fitted  for  the  cereals  with  extra 
care,  and  plant -food  added  by  a  liberal  applica- 
tion of  fertilizers  or  manure. 

310.  Since  the  pasture  is  not  to  be  plowed 
after  it  is  once  seeded,  it  is  necessary  to  prepare 
the  entii*e  soil  so  perfectly  that  it  will  form  a 
comfortable  home  and  provide  nourishment  for 
the  plants  for  many  years.  If  the  land  is  poor, 
fertility  should  be  applied.  But  prepare  the 
land  as  best  we  may,  it  will  not  be  many  years 
before  much   of  the  readily  available  plant-food 


182  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

will  have  been  used  by  the  plants,  and  some  of 
the  products  of  the  animals  which  consume  the 
grass  will  never  be  returned  to  the  pasture;  hence, 
the  pasture  will  tend  to  become  less  productive  as 
the  years  pass.  And,  as  the  plants  become  old, 
they  are  less  vigorous  than  young  ones,  not  only 
because  of  age,  but  from  frequent  injuries  from 
the  animals.  It  is,  therefore,  necessary  to  main- 
tain the  pasture,  as  well  as  to  prepare  it  in  the 
beginning. 

26.  Maintaining  the  pasture 

311.  The  grass  should  be  of  the  right  kind. 
In  the  North,  June-gi-ass  or  blue -grass  is  the 
most  permanent  pasture  grass,  and  it  is  the  one 
which  gradually  works  into  pastures  after  other 
grasses  begin  to  fail.  Timothy  is  commonly  sown, 
about  six  quarts  to  the  acre.  A  little  June-grass 
seed  may  be  added,  but  this  gi'ass  may  usually 
be  depended  upon  to  come  in  of  itself.  Orchard- 
grass  is  useful  in  shady  pastures  and  stands  graz- 
ing well,  but  grows  too  much  in  stools.  Red-top 
is  useful  in  the  moister  lands.  In  the  South, 
Bermuda  grass  and  Japan  clover  are  best. 

312.  After  the  pasture  has  been  secured,  the 
grasses  must  be  maintained  for  many  years  in 
full  vigor.  It  is  pre-supposed  that  the  clovers 
have  been  used  to  a  limited  extent  in  the  grass- 
seed  mixtures  when  the  pasture  was  first   made, 


PASTURES,    MEADOWS,    AND     FORAGE  183 

since  the  clovers  are  host  plants  to  the  grasses. 
They  start  early  and  protect  the  later -growing 
gi-asses.  Most  of  the  clovers  live  but  from  one 
to  three  years.  The  clovers,  in  common  with 
other  legumes,  contain  a  large  percentage  of 
potential  nitrogen  (110,  138,  190).  The  pasture 
grasses  are  much  benefited  by  a  full  supply  of 
nitrogen,  but  they  can  secure  little,  if  any,  from 
the  air,  and  hence  must  supply  then-  needs  as 
best  they  can  from  that  found  in  the  soil.  It 
will  then  be  understood  how  eagerly  the  hungry 
grasses  feed  on  the  decaying  short-lived  clovers. 
It  will  also  be  understood  why  clovers  are  called 
host  plants. 

313.  The  short-lived  host  plants  may  be  per- 
petuated, and  the  grasses  kept  young  and  vig- 
orous, by  sowing  seeds  of  the  clovers  and 
grasses  every  two  or  three  years  in  early  spring, 
and  scarifying  the  surface  with  a  sharp-toothed 
harrow,  this  to  be  followed  by  the  roller.  The 
harrowing  will  not  only  tear  out  some  of  the 
superannuated  grass  roots  (270)  and  old  plants 
and  cover  the  seeds,  but  it  will  tend  to  aerate  the 
surface  soil  and  to  promote  bacterial  activity. 
From  time  to  time,  a  light  dressing  of  farm 
manures  or  of  commercial  fertilizers  should  be 
applied,  spread  evenly,  in  the  fall. 

314.  An  inspection  of  the  field  should  be 
made   each    spring,   in   order   that    seed    may  be 


184  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

sown  where  not  enough  plants  are  present,  and 
also  to  discover  what  kinds  of  plants  are  most 
promising,  so  that  the  supplementary  seeds  may 
be  chosen  to  best  suit  the  conditions.  Coax  the 
grass  to  gi'ow  by  shading  the  imperfectly  cov- 
ered knolls  with  refuse  material,  such  as  is 
always  found  about  a  farmstead.  Even  a  light 
covering  of  brush  or  maize  stalks  may  be  used 
to  partly  shade  the  ground,  and  to  conserve 
moisture.  If  a  small  ration  of  grain  be  fed  the 
animals  which  graze  the  pasture,  the  field  will 
tend  to  become  more  productive  instead  of  less 
productive. 

315.  It  will  require  several  years  of  watchful 
care,  new  seed,  possibly  harrowing  and  rolling, 
some  added  plant- food  and  a  light  dressing  of 
lime,  and  the  timely  destruction  of  large,  un- 
palatable weeds,  to  secure  a  really  good,  perma- 
nent pasture.  The  eye  of  the  husbandman 
makes    the    grass    thrive. 

316.  In  the  pastures  the  grass  is  kept  short ; 
therefore  the  entire  surface  should  be  covered. 
If  areas  of  even  a  few  square  inches  are  bare, 
needless  evaporation  takes  place.  If  the  gi-asses 
are  kept  too  short,  the  rays  of  the  sun  will  take 
up  much  soil  moisture  which  should  have  been 
taken  up  by  the  plants,  since  the  soU  will  not 
be  well  shaded.  If  the  i:>lants  are  allowed  to 
grow    tall     and     produce    seed,     then    they    are 


PASTURES,    MEADOWS,    AND     FORAGE  185 

weakened.  To  prevent  the  tall  growth,  mow  the 
pasture,  if  there  are  not  enough  animals  to  pre- 
vent the  gi'ass  from  seeding,  and  leave  the  cut 
material  to  shade  the  soil.  Aim  to  preserve 
the  li^Tng  gi*ass  shade  intact.  Substitute  young 
plants  for  the  old  ones.  Prevent  the  soil  from 
becoming  acid  by  light  applications  of  lime  and 
by  harrowing  it.  And,  so  far  as  possible,  ex- 
ercise timely  care  to  prevent  the  plants  from  be- 
coming hungry  and  thirsty. 

317.  Here,  then,  in  a  nut- shell,  are  the  ele- 
ments of  a  good,  permanent  pasture :  superior 
preparation  of  soil,  suitable  and  abundant  seeds 
sown  in  August,  and  light  pasturing  the  first 
season,  or,  better,  mowing  the  first  year  ;  and 
appropriate  seeds  and  plant -food  must  be  added 
from  time  to  time,  as  requii-ed. 


3.    Meadows 

3a.  Temporary    meadoics 

318.  In  gi-ain-gi'owing  districts,  the  meadow 
may  occupy  from  one  to  three  years  in  a  rota- 
tion. In  dairy  districts,  meadows  are  often  per- 
manent. The  average  %ield  of  hay  in  the  North 
is  little  more  than  one  ton  per  acre,  although 
some  meadows  yield  from  two  to  three  tons, 
and,    in    rare    cases,    four    tons.      The    average 


186  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

yield  is  unprofitable,  either  in  a  rotation  or  in 
a  permanent  meadow.  As  a  crop  in  the  rota- 
tion, the  meadow  may  improve  the  soil  for 
subsequent    crops. 

319.  The  larger  yields  are  usually  secured 
from  vigorous  young  meadows  which  contain 
three  or  four  parts  of  timothy  and  one  part  of 
mixed  clovers.  If  clover  be  associated  with 
timothy  in  approximately  these  proportions, 
nearly  as  much  timothy  will  be  secured  as  if 
it  were  sown  alone,  and  the  clover,  or  host 
plants,  will  be  extra.  True,  the  clovers  mature 
more  quickly  than  the  timothy,  and  this  is 
somewhat  objectionable ;  therefore,  the  clover 
mixture  may  be  composed  largely  of  alsike  clo- 
ver, which  remains  green  longer  and  cures  lighter 
colored  than  the  medium  red  clover  does. 

320.  The  meadow  must  be  viewed  from  many 
standpoints.  For  the  city  market,  unmixed  hay 
sells  for  more  than  the  mixed,  though  the  latter 
may  be  better  and  more  palatable.  The  uses  to 
which  the  hay  is  destined  must  be  considered, 
since  horses  should  not  be  fed  much  clover, 
while  sheep  and  cattle  should  not  be  fed  hay 
composed  wholly  of  timothy  and  similar  grasses. 
But  the  meadow  remains  productive  longest 
where  the  host  plants  are  present. 

321.  Whether  it  is  best  to  leave  the  meadow 
for  some  years  and  preserve  its  productiveness 


PASTURES,    MEADOWS,    AND     FORAGE  187 

by  adding  new  seed,  harrowing,  and  by  the  ap- 
plication of  plant -food,  or  to  mow  it  for  one  or 
two  years  and  then  plow  and  use  the  land  for 
other  crops,  are  questions  which  must  be  an- 
swered by  the  condition  of  the  meadow  and  the 
character  of  the  rotation.  There  is  one  inva- 
riable rule  to  be  followed, — if  the  meadow  fails  to 
return  two  tons  of  field-dried  hay  to  the  acre, 
plow  it  up  ;  and  when  the  old  plants  are  sub- 
dued and  the  soil  put  in  ideal  condition,  and 
when  the  causes  which  prevented  full  success  with 
the  old  meadow  are  fully  considered,  cast  in  the 
new  seed  with  understanding,  trusting  that  fuller 
success  "will  be  reached. 

36.  Perynanent  meadows 

322.  With  permanent  meadows  many  new 
problems  are  presented.  Many  fields  are  of  such 
a  character  as  to  preclude  a  rotation  of  crops. 
In  such  cases  the  problem  is  presented  of  con- 
tinued liberal  production  without  plowing.  Low 
lands,  or  those  which  are  wholly  or  in  part  over- 
flowed for  brief  periods,  constitute  the  larger 
part  of  our  permanent  meadows.  These  low 
lands  are  the  home  of  many  natural  grasses 
which  do  not  thrive  on  the  uplands  ;  and  some 
of  the  cultivated  upland  gi'asses  and  the  clovers 
are  not  at  their  best  when  gi'own  in  wettish 
soils. 


188  TKZ     PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

323.  In  lowland  meadows,  a  battle  royal, 
which  is  most  interesting  and  instructiTe  to 
watch,  goes  on  from  year  to  year.  Most  of  the 
plants  hold  their  places  so  tenaciously,  and  so 
many  hardy  new  ones  appear,  that  the  plants 
soon  become  too  nnmeroos  and  then  dwarf  one 
another,  in  which  case  the  production  is  di- 
minished. On  these  moist  lands  there  is  little 
difficnlty  in  securing  sufficient  plants  :  the  proVi- 
lem  is  rather  how  to  destroy  some  of  them,  that 
better  conditions  may  be  secured  for  those 
which  remain. 

324.  It  has  been  shown  (316)  why  the  pas- 
tures should  be  fully  covered  with  plants  ;  but 
permanent  meadows  should  have  fewer  plants. 
If  there  are  too  many,  the  grasses  will  not  grow 
to  their  full  size,  and  many  of  the  leaves  on  the 
lower  half  of  the  stalks  will  be  yellowish,  insipid, 
and  lacking  in  aroma  because  they  have  not 
received  enough  sunlight.  K  there  are  too  many 
roots  in  the  soil,  there  will  not  be  sufficient  food 
for  aU  except  when  the  soil  is  extremely  fertile 
anl  moist  ;  and  few  plants  will  come  to  normal 
maturity.  The  grasses  which  are  grown  too  thick, 
and  consequently  have  been  excluded  from  a  full 
supply  of  sunlight,  are  poor  in  quality,  like  the 
apples  which  grow  in  the  shade  on  the  lower 
branches. 

325.  All  this   goes  to  show  how  necessarv  it 


PASTURES,    MEADOWS,    AND    FORAGE  189 

may  be  to  destroy  some  of  the  grasses  in  a  per- 
manent meadow.  By  the  vigorous  use  of  a 
sharp-toothed  harrow,  much  may  be  done  to 
relieve  the  "hide- bound"  and  mossy  condition,  to 
destroy  plants  and  to  aerate  the  soil  (270,  313). 
A  light  dressing  of  lime  will  materially  assist  in 
liberating  plant-food  and  in  correcting  soil 
acidity,  as  in  pastures. 

3c.  Kinds  of  grasses  for  meadows 

326.  What  kind  and  quantity  of  seed  should 
be  sown,  is  the  question  that  is  asked  more 
frequently  than  any  other,  because  it  is  most 
difficult  to  answer.  In  the  grass  districts  of  the 
United  States,  timothy  or  "herd's-grass"  usually 
stands  first.  It  is  extremely  hardy,  long  lived,  is 
well  adapted  to  grazing,  and  yet  attains  good 
size  in  the  meadow,  and  when  cut  at  the  appro- 
priate time  and  not  over-cured,  it  makes  superior 
hay.  The  seeds  are  not  expensive,  and  can 
usually  be  secured  without  admixture  of  weed 
seeds.  Timothy,  then,  in  most  cases,  may  form 
the  foundation.  Six  quarts  per  acre,  more  or 
less,  will  suffice  when  used  alone,  and  it  may  be 
sown  at  any  time  from  early  spring  until  fall. 

327.  We  have  seen  (312,  319)  that  clover  adds 
to  the  longevity  and  productiveness  of  the  pas- 
ture or  meadow.     If  the  clovers  are  used,  about 


190  THE    PRECCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

the  same  amoimt  or  a  little  more  seed  is  sown  as 
of  timothy,  but  the  plants  are  litely  to  be  winter- 
killed if  sowing  is  made  after  Augrist. 

328.  There  are  varions  secondary  and  supple- 
mentary grasses,  such  as  bine -grass,  orchard- 
grass,  red- top,  and  tall  meadow  fescue.  Some 
or  all  of  these  may  be  used  in  limited  quanti- 
ties. Seeds  of  all  these  weigh  but  fourteen 
pounds  to  the  bushel,  are  usually  sold  in  the 
chaff,  are  not  likely  to  be  pure,  and  are  difficult 
to  distribute  evenly.  In  most  places,  quite  as 
mnch  bine-grass  appears  as  a  volunteer  as  is 
desirable,  but,  except  in  rare  cases,  it  is  not  a 
profitable  hay  grass.  Orchard-grass  starts  early, 
tends  to  grow  in  hummocks,  does  well  in  the 
shade  and  in  close-grazed  pastures,  but  is  the 
worst  of  all  grasses  in  the  lawn,  where  only 
fine,  recumbent  grasses  and  white  clovers  are 
admissible.  Bed-top  is  a  good  pasture  grass 
and  lawn  grass,  and  is  well  adapted  to  very  wet 
meair-^s.  s.-:hough  it  does  not  make  a  first- 
clas-  Tall   meadow  fescue   is   one   of   the 

mc-  -ising  recently  introduced   grasses   for 

boi'  :>w   and   pasture.     In   many  places   it 

has    —  from  the  fields  into  the  roadsides, 

where  ii  -ii<:«vrs  its  superiority  over  blue-grass 
and  even  over  timothy.  Of  these  grasses,  from 
one  to  two  bushels  of  seed  are  required  i)er  acre. 
All  do  wel-  when  sown  in  early  spring  or  in  fall. 


PASTURES,   MEADOWS,    AND    FORAGE  191 

329.  Other  grasses,  as  sheep  fescue,  sweet 
vernal  grass,  and  similar  dwarf  grasses,  are  not 
to  be  recommended  for  general  use  in  America. 
Other  grasses  are  adapted  to  special  localities, 
as  barley  and  wild  oats,  which  are  extensively 
used  in  California  for  hay.  There  is  a  wealth 
of  native  grasses,  but  most  of  them  give  little 
promise  for  upland  meadows. 


4.  Other   Forage   Plants 

330.  The  plants  already  discussed,  together 
with  other  coarser  plants  of  the  farm  which  are 
fed  to  domestic  animals,  are  known  collect- 
ively as  forage  plants ;  although  this  term  is 
commonly  applied  to  such  plants  as  are  not 
grown  in  permanent  meadows  or  pastures.  By 
recent  common  consent  the  term  "roughage"  has 
been  substituted  for  them.  Both  terms  are 
somewhat  indefinite.  The  words  usually  imply 
somewhat  unconcentrated,  dried  materials,  to 
which  some  concentrated  food  must  be  added 
if  ample  growth,  development  and  surplus  pro- 
ducts,  as   milk,   are   secured. 

331.  When  forage  plants  are  cut  and  fed 
green  they  are  called  soiling  plants.  There 
are  several  species  of  plants,  as,  for  instance, 
the   prickly    comfrey,   which,   if  fed   green,  may 


192  THE    PRINCIPLES    OP    AGRICULTURE 

be   used  for  soiling,   but,   if   dried,   are   unpala- 
table. 

332.  The  production  of  forage  and  soiling 
crops  is  extremely  simple.  They  may  be  inter- 
tilled or  not.  Large  plants,  which  require  abun- 
dant food  and  moisture  and  a  full  supply  of 
sunlight,  as  maize,  should  be  tilled  ;  but  small 
and  quickly  maturing  ones,  as  barley,  may  be 
raised  without  inter -tillage. 

333.  The  two  great  forage  plants  of  the 
United  States  are  maize  and  alfalfa.  The  latter 
is  well  suited  to  the  semi -arid  districts  of  the 
West,  and  thrives  to  an  astonishing  degree  in  the 
bright  sunshine  of  the  Plains,  when  supplied 
with  moisture  by  irrigation.  It  is  perennial,  and 
several  cuttings  may  be  taken  each  season.  It  is 
one  of  the  leguminous  crops,  and,  therefore, 
appropriates  nitrogen  of  the  air.  Like  clover,  it 
has  a  deep  root-system. 

334.  But  the  king  of  all  grasses,  the  one  most 
useful,  most  easily  raised  and  harvested,  and  the 
most  productive,  is  Indian  corn,  or  maize.  In  a 
little  more  than  one  hundred  days  from  planting, 
from  four  to  six  tons  of  air-dried  stalks  and  from 
forty  to  fifty  bushels  of  grain  may  be  secured 
from  each  acre  ;  or  from  twelve  to  twenty  tons  of 
uncured  material  may  be  secured  for  the  silo. 

335.  Rye,  though  not  a  first-class  forage  or 
soiling  plant,  may  be  sown  in  the  fall,  cut  when 


PASTURES,    MEADOWS,    AND    FORAGE  193 

in  head,  and  followed  by  a  crop  of  Hungarian 
grass,  which  thrives  in  hot  weather;  and  this  in 
turn  may  be  followed  by  oats  and  peas.  There 
will  not  be  time  in  the  North  for  the  oats  and 
peas  to  mature,  but  they  will  remain  green 
through  November,  and  may  furnish  late  fall 
pasture,  or  may  be  left  on  the  ground  to  serve  as 
a  winter  cover-crop  (115). 

SUGGESTIONS   Oy  CHAPTER  XII 

304a.  It  is  impracticable  to  treat  of  specific  crops  iu  a 
text-book.  Grass  and  forage  are  so  fundamental  to  the  con- 
ception of  agriculture,  however,  that  it  will  be  profitable  to 
discuss  them,  particularly  as  the  cultivation  of  them  illustrates 
some  of  the  underlying  principles  of  cropping.  For  advice  as 
to  the  handling  of  particular  crops,  the  enquirer  must  go  to 
books  on  the  special  topics. 

3046.  The  true  grasses  constitute  the  natural  family  of 
plants  known  to  botanists  as  the  Gramineas  or  grass  family ; 
and  this  family  includes  all  the  cereal  grains,  as  wheat,  maize, 
and  rice.  In  its  largest  sense,  therefore,  the  word  grass  in- 
cludes many  plants  which  are  not  commonly  recognized  as 
grasses. 

304c.  The  term  grass  is  popularly  used  to  designate  the 
medium  sized  and  smaller  members  of  the  grass  family,  such 
as  orchard-grass,  timothy,  and  blue-grass,  and  not  the  larger 
grasses,  as  oats,  sugar-cane,  and  bamboo. 

304(f.  The  clovers  are  sometimes  erroneously  called  grasses  ; 
and  "a  field  of  grass"  may  contain  many  kinds  of  plants.  There 
are  many  kinds  of  clover.  The  common  red  clover  is  Trifolium 
pratense ;  the  medium  red  is  T.  medium;  the  alsike  is  T.  hi/bri- 
dum,  with  rose-tinted  flowers  ;  the  white  or  creeping  clover, 
or  shamrock,  is  T.  repens ;    the  crimson,  used  for  cover-crops,  is 

M 


194 


THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 


T.  incarnatum.  "With  the  exception  of  Trifolium  repens,  these  are 
introduced  from  the  Old  World.  The  Japan  clover,  now  much 
prized  in  the  South,  is  really  not  a  clover,  but  belongs  to  a 
closely   related   genus.      It    is   known   to   botanists   as  Lespedeza 


Fig.  74.    A  carei,  or  sedge. 


Fig.  75.    A  common  sedge,  or  earex,  in 
flower  and  when  ripe. 


Striata.      It    was    introduced    accidentally    into     South    Carolina 
about  1849. 

304re.  There  are  many  kinds  of  grass -like  plants.  The 
greater  part  of  these,  at  least  in  the  North,  belong  to  the 
closely  related  Sedge  family.  Sedges  are  easily  distinguished 
by  3-ranked  leaves  and  usually  by  3-angled  stems,  with  a 
pith  ;     and    the   flowers   are   very  unlike    grasses.      The    sedges 


PASTURES,     MEADOWS,    AND    FORAGE 


195 


ai'e  generally  worthless  as  forage  plants,  although  some  speeiea 

in   the  West    and    South    afford    acceptable    cattle    ranges   when 

A        grass    is    not     to    be    had.       Figs.   74    and    75    show 

^       common   types    of    sedges,  such    as    are    frequent  in 

swales. 

305«.  In  specialty-farming  {4a),  abundance  of 
plant -food  and  humus  material  can  be  added  to 
the  soil,  and  rotations  may  not  be  needed  ;  but 
in  general  or  mixed  husbandry  some  kind  of  rota- 
tion is  essential.  Read  Chapter  xv.,  "Fertility  of 
the  Land." 

305/).  The  kind  of  rotation  must  be  determined 
by  the  soil  and  many  other  factors.  A  four-year 
rotation,  in   which  an    exacting  crop  follows    a    less 


Fig.  76. 
'  Timothy  {Phlevm 
pratense)  xj^. 


Fig.  77.    June-grass  or  blue-grass 
(Poo  pratenais)  s}^. 


Fig.  78.    Orehard-grass  {Dactylis 
glomerata)  x%. 


Fig.  79.    Tap-root  of 
red  clover.    (Compare  Fig.  33.) 


PASTURES,    MEADOWS,    AND    FORAGE 


197 


exacting   one,    and   in    which    the    clover    root-borer    is   kept    in 

check,  is  — 

Clover,  one  year  ; 

Maize,  with  or  without  manure  ; 

Oats  ; 

Wheat,  with  phosphates  and  manures. 

A  good  rotation  for  "fairly  fertile,  lightish   lands,"  is  — 

Clover,  one  year  ; 

Potatoes; 

Wheat. 

A  rotation  for  weed-infested  land  is  — 

Sod  : 

Maize  : 

Potatoes  or  some  other  inter-tilled  crop  ; 

Oats  or  barley. 

307a.    A  permanent  pasture  is  one  which   is  to  remain  many 
years  without  plowing.     Some  pastures,  particularly  on   rocky  or 


rolling  land,  remain  undisturbed  for  a 
Bermuda  grass  and  Japan  clover  make 
permanent  pastures  in  many  parts  of  the 
South,  but  most  grasses  do  not  make  good 
sod  there.  In  distinction  to  permanent 
pastures  are  the  temporary  pastures  which 
are  a  part  of  a  rotation,  or  the  meadow 
which  is  pastured  after  the  hay  is  cut. 

311<7.  The  familiar  Timothy  is  shown 
in  Figs.  76  and  80.  June-grass,  with 
a  flower  in  detail,  is  seen  in  Fig.  77. 
June-grass  is  a  common  grass  along  road- 
sides, ripening  very  early,  and  is  the  best 
grass  for  lawns.  Orchard-grass  is  illus- 
trated by  Fig.  78. 

312a.     The  word    host    is  here   used 
in  a  different  sense  than  by  the  botanist 
and  entomologist  {292b).     Here  it  means 
a  helper  or  companion,  not  a  plant  upon  pj    ^^ 
which  another  plant  or  an  insect  preys. 


generation    and    more. 


Shallow  root-system 
of  timothy. 


PASTURES,    MEADOWS,    AND    FORAGE 


199 


313a.  Observe  how  different  the  roots  of  clover  and  timothy 
are  (Figs.  79,  80).  One  feeds  in  the  subsoil  and  subsurface 
soil,  has  many  little  organisms  on  its  rootlets,  which  are  called 
nitrogen -fixers  (138);  that  is,  they  take  the  free  nitrogen  of 
the  soil  air,  and  it  then  becomes  of  use  to  the  plant. 
The  timothy  has  many  small  fibrous  roots,  which  remain  near 
the  surface,  and  have  no  nitrogen-fixing  organisms.     It  will  be 


Fig.  82.    Alfalfa  or  lucerne  {Medicago 
satica)  xb^. 


Fig.  83. 


A  good  bottle  for 
seeds. 


seen  how  appropriate  it  is  to  raise  these  plants  together  :  one 
feeds  near  the  surface,  the  other  down  deep  in  the  soil ;  one 
is  long  lived,  the  other  short  lived. 

318a.  In  general  farming,  the  most  uniformly  good  crops 
are  nearly  always  obtained  when  a  rotation  is  used.  Fig.  81 
is  a  field  of  wheat,  in  a  rotation,  which  yielded  over  30  bushels 
to  the  acre. 

323a.  The  permanent  meadows  teach  many  valuable  lessons 
if  they  are  studied  closely.  Here  is  often  found  a  marked  illus- 
tration of  the  struggle  for  existence  and  of  the  survival  of  the 
fittest.      Here    the    farmer   can    give    little    help    by  tillage,    and 


200  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

small  opportunity  is  afforded  him  to  destroy  the  less  desirable 
plants,  that  the  more  desirable  ones  may  have  better  conditions. 

333a.  A  sprig  of  alfalfa  is  shown  in  Fig.  82.  It  has  small 
blue  flowers  in  little  clusters,  and  leaves  of  three  leaflets.  It  is 
grown  somewhat  in  the  East,  but  it  is  most  useful  in  the  dry 
regions  of  the  Plains  and  westward. 

335a.  All  the  plants  mentioned  in  this  chapter  should  be 
known  to  the  pupil.  In  some  schools,  herbarium  specimens 
mry  be  made  of  them.  It  is  interesting  and  useful  to  collect 
seeds  of  farm  and  garden  plants.  The  school  house  may  very 
profitably  contain  a  cabinet  of  seeds.  T'seful  bottles  are  the 
"specimen  tubes"  sold  by  wholesale  druggists  and  natural -history 
stores.  One  is  shown  in  Fig.  83.  It  is  %  inch  in  diameter  and 
3  inches  high,  and  can  be  bought,  without  the  corks,  for  about 
30  cents  per  dozen. 

For  references  on  grasses  and  forage  plants,  consult  Vol.  II, 
Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture;  Hunt's  "Forage  and  Fiber 
Crops  in  America;"  Voorhees'  "Forage  Crops;"  Spillman's  "Farm 
Grasses  of  the  United  States."  For  the  cereals,  see  Hunt's 
"Cereals  in  America." 


Paet  III 
THE  ANDIAL,   AND    STOCK 


Chapter   XIII 
THE   OFFICES   OF   THE   ANIMAL 

1.    The  Animal  and   the   Stock 

336.  In  an  agnciiltnral  sense,  the  animal,  as 
a  representative  of  the  animal  kingdom,  has  six 
general  t}7)es  of  uses  or  offices  :  it  aids  in  main- 
taining the  fertility  of  the  land  ;  it  provides  a 
means  of  disposing  of  crop's  ;  it,  or  its  products, 
may  be  of  intrinsic  value  in  supplying  food  and 
clothing;  it  works,  or  is  a  "beast  of  burden"; 
it  may  aid  in  keeping  the  farm  clean  of  weeds 
and  pests  ;  it  diversifies  agricultural  occupations ; 
it  affords  employment  for  labor  during  the 
inclement  months. 

337.  When  animals  are  raised  in  quantity, 
they  are  spoken  of  as  stock.  This  stock  may  be 
cattle,  turkeys,  sheep,  ducks,  swine,  fish,  or 
horses  ;  but  in  common  speech  the  word  is  ap- 
plied mostly  to  quadrupeds  (7). 

(201) 


202  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

2.    The  Animal    in  Its  BeJation   to   the    Soil 

338.  The  first  great  resource  for  the  improve- 
ment of  the  textm-e  and  richness  of  the  soil  is 
herbage  (108-111) ;  the  second  is  farm  manures. 
When  stock  is  pastured,  practically  all  the  ma- 
nure is  returned  to  the  farm  ;  but  when  it  is 
housed,  much  of  the  maniu'e  is  commonly  lost 
through  the  carelessness  of  the  farmer  (120, 
120a). 

339.  The  greater  the  proportion  of  stock  to 
crop,  the  more  fertile  the  farm  should  be  ;  for  if 
the  farmer  must  buy  feed,  the  manm-e  is  gain, 
so  far  as  the  farm  is  concerned.  In  general 
mixed  husbandry,  stock  is  necessary  in  order  to 
maintain  fertility,  as  well  as  for  its  direct  value  ; 
but  in  intensive  (lllrt)  and  specialty -farming 
(4a)  manures  may  be  bought. 


3.   The  Animal  in  Its  Relation  to  the  Croj) 

340.  There  is  not  sufficient  market  for  all  the 
crops  which  the  land  can  raise.  Therefore,  some 
of  the  crop  may  be  fed  to  the  animal  and  sold 
as  meat,  or  butter,  or  eggs. 

341.  There  is  an  important  secondary  gain  in 
this  feeding-out  of  the  crop,  for  part  of  the  crop 
is  returned  to  the  land  in  Ihe  manure.      Some 


THE     OFFICES     OF    THE     ANIMAL  203 

crops,  as  clover,  carry  away  much  more  plant- 
food,  if  they  are  sold  off  the  farm,  than  the 
animal  products  which,  in  large  part,  are  elabo- 
rated from  them. 

4.   The  Animal  Has  Intrinsic   Value  to  Man 
Au.  As  articles  of  food 

342.  Animals  are  direct  sources  of  food. 
They  contribute  the  various  kinds  of  flesh,  as 
beef,  pork,  poultry,  fish. 

343.  Animals  are  indirect  sources  of  food, 
contributing  of  their  products,  as  eggs,  milk, 

344.  Animals  also  contribute  materials  to 
various  manufactured  food  products,  as  cheese, 
condensed  milk,  butter. 

46.  As  articles  used  in  the  arts 

345.  Animals  contribute  materials  for  cloth- 
ing. Amongst  such  products  are  leather  and 
wool.  They  also  afford  material  for  many 
articles  of  personal  use,  as  feathers,  bone,  hair, 
glue,  horn. 

346.  Animals  contribute  largely  to  fertilizing 
materials,  particularly  to  substances  containing 
nitrogen  and  phosphoric  acid.  Amongst  such 
materials,  the  most  important  are  bones,  dried 
blood,    tankage  ;     of    secondary    importance    are 


204  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTUEE 

hair -waste,    wool -waste,    fish -scrap,    hoof- meal, 
various  forms  of  horn. 

4c    As  companions 

347.  Many  animals  are  pets,  or  companions  to 
man,  and  the  rearing  of  them  is  a  species  of 
agriculture.  Of  such  are  dogs,  cats,  rabbits, 
tame  birds,  and  others. 


5.   The  Animal  as  a  Beast  of  Burden 

348.  The  animal  aids  in  tilling  the  soil.  How- 
ever much  steam  may  be  utilized  for  propelling 
implements  of  tillage,  the  horse  and  the  ox  will 
still  be  indispensable  to  agriculture.  Even  the 
trampiag  of  the  animals  over  loose  soils  tends  to 
compact  and  improve  the  land  (2506). 

349.  The  animal  supplies  means  of  transpor- 
tation. Even  with  the  advent  of  the  electric  car, 
the  bicycle  and  the  horseless  carriage,  the  driv- 
ing horse  will  remain  an  important  part  of  the 
farm  equipment. 

350.  The  animal  also  supplies  power  for  the 
driving  of  farm  machinery,  as  threshing  and 
feed-cutting  machinery.  On  large  farms,  steam 
power  must  come  to  be  more  and  more  important, 
but  on  the  smaller  ones  animal  power  will  long 
remain  an  indispensable  factor. 


THE    OFFICES    OF    THE    ANIMAL  205 

6.  The  Animal  as  a  Pest-destroyer 

351.  The  browsing  of  animals  aids  in  keeping 
weeds  and  wild  growths  in  check.  It  is  well- 
known  that  pasturing  with  sheep  is  one  of  the 
best  means  of  cleaning  a  weedy  area. 

352.  Animals  may  keep  insect  and  fungous 
pests  in  check  by  eating  the  fallen  fruit  or 
foliage.  It  is  well  known  that  swine  keep  the 
apple-worm  in  check  by  eating  the  windfall 
apples.  Swine  also  root  out  and  eat  the  white 
grub  and  other  insects. 

7.  The  Animal  Diversifies  Labor 

353.  The  animal  itself  introduces  diversity 
into  farming.  It  also  demands  the  growing  of 
diverse  crops.  It  enforces  rotations  of  crops. 
Diverse  interests  educate  the  farmer,  by  demand- 
ing attention  to  many  problems. 

354.  Some  of  the  labor  which  is  employed  in 
summer  in  the  growing  of  crops  may  be  em- 
ployed in  winter  in  caring  for  stock.  The 
animal,  therefore,  introduces  continuousness  into 
farming.  The  best  laborers  demand  employment 
the  year  round. 


206  THE     PRINCIPLES     OF     AGRICrLTURE 


SCGGESTIOXS    OX    CHAPTER    XIII 

338a.  It  is  remarkable  how  the  value  of  manurt  increases 
with  the  age  of  the  country  and  the  intensity  of  the  agriculture. 
This  comes  as  a  result  of  experience,  wholly  without  the  teachings 
of  science,  although  science  explains  why  manure  is  valuable, 
and  points  out  many  of  the  limitations  of  its  use.  The  pros- 
perity of  the  German  peasant  is  measured  by  the  size  of  his 
manure-pile.  Gardeners  place  the  greatest  dependence  upon 
manure  ;  but  they  want  it  well  rotted, — which  means  that  they 
not  only  want  its  plant-food  in  the  most  available  condition,  but 
that  they  desire  to  utilize  it  largely  for  its  mechanical  effect  in 
loosening  the  soil  with  which  it  is  mixed. 

341a.  A  ton  of  clover  hay  removes  about  forty  pounds  of 
nitrogen,  ten  pounds  of  phosphoric  acid  and  forty  pounds  of 
potash.  A  ton  of  butter  removes  about  two  and  one-half  pounds 
of  nitrogen,  and  less  than  one  pound  each  of  phosphoric  acid  and 
potash. 

346a.  "Tankage  is  a  highly  nitrogenous  product,  and  con- 
sists chiefly  of  the  dried  animal  wastes  from  the  large  abattoirs 
and  slaughtering  establishments.  It  is  variable  in  its  composition, 
since  it  includes  the  otherwise  unusable  parts  of  the  carcass,  as 
bone,  tendons,  flesh,  hair,  etc.  The  portions  of  this  from  the 
different  animals  not  only  vary  in  their  composition,  but  they  are 
used  in  varying  proportions,  which  naturally  results  in  an  ex- 
tremely variable  product.  What  is  known  as  'concentrated 
tankage,'  which  is  obtained  by  evaporating  the  fluids  which  con- 
tain certain  extractive  animal  matter,  is  the  richest  in  nitrogen, 
and  is  more  uniform  in  character  than  the  others  :  and  because  of 
its  fineness  of  division  and  physical  character,  the  nitrogen  con- 
tained in  it  is  also  more  active  than  in  the  other  forms." — Voor- 
hees,  Fertilizers,  43. 

346?».  Many  other  animal  substances  are  used  for  fertilizers. 
Those  which  are  used  for  their  nitrogen  are  dried  blood,  dried 
meat,  dried  and  ground  fish,  sea  crabs,  hoof  meal.  Those  which 
are  used  for  phosphates  are  the  various  forms  and  preparations  of 


THE     OFFICES     OP     THE     ANIJIAL  207 

bone,  as  raw,  boiled,  steamed  bone,  bone  ash  and  bone-black  ; 
also,  dried  fish. 

35la.  With  all  the  remarks  which  have  now  been  made  on 
weeds  (226,  101,  101a,  117,  267,  267a,268),  the  pupil  will  see  that 
the  only  fundamental  and  permanent  way  to  escape  weeds  is 
through  better  rarm  management  ;  and,  to  a  less  extent,  the  same 
conclusion  will  apply  to  insect  and  fungous  pests.  "I  went  by  the 
field  of  the  slothful,  and  by  the  vineyard  of  the  man  void  of 
understanding  ;  and  lo,  it  was  all  grown  over  with  thorns,  and 
nettles  had  covered  the  face  thereof,  and  the  stone  wall  thereof 
was  broken  down." — Proverbs  xxiv.,  30,  31. 

354rt.  Upon  the  desirability  of  continuous  employment  for 
farm  labor,  Koberts  speaks  as  follows  when  writing  of  rotations  : 
"  The  baleful  results  of  raising  a  single  or  few  products  in  ex- 
tended districts  may  be  seen  in  California  and  the  great  wheat 
districts  of  the  Northwest.  In  such  localities,  there  is  little  or  no 
true  home  life,  with  its  duties  and  restraints  ;  men  and  boys  are 
herded  together  like  cattle,  sleep  where  they  may,  and  subsist  as 
best  they  can.  The  work  is  hard,  and  from  sun  to  sun  for  two  or 
three  months,  when  it  abruptly  ceases,  and  the  workmen  are  left 
to  find  employment  as  best  they  may,  or  adopt  the  life  and  habits 
of  the  professional  tramp.  It  is  difficult  to  name  anything  more 
demoralizing  to  men,  and  especially  to  boys,  than  this  inter- 
mittent labor  ;  and  the  higher  the  wages  paid  and  the  shorter  the 
period  of  service,  the  more  demoralizing  the  effect.  If  there 
were  no  other  reason  for  practicing  a  rotation  with  a  variety  of 
plants,  the  welfare  of  the  workman  and  his  family  should  form  a 
snfi&cient  one."— Fertility  of  the  Land,  369. 

For  references  on  live-stock,  consult  Vol.  Ill,  Cyclopedia  of 
American  Agriculture;  Roberts'  "The  Horse;"  Plumb's  "Types 
and  Breeds  of  Farm  Animals;"  Mayo'a  "Care  of  Animals"  (Dis- 
eases of  Animals). 


Chapter  XIV 
HOW  THE  AXIMAL   LIVES 

JAMES  LAW 

1.   Tlie  Cell,  and  Its  Part   in  the  Vital 

Processes 
la.   The  cell 

355.  The  element  in  the  body  that  carries  on 
vital  processes  is  the  cell ;  for  life  in  the  animal, 
like  life  in  the  plant  (Chap,  viii.),  is  dependent 
on  the  existence  of  cells.  Each  animal  cell  is 
a  soft,  jelly-like  substance,  held  together  by 
an  exceedingly  delicate  network  of  fibers.  It 
might  be  compared  to  a  microscopic  particle  of 
raw  white  of   e^g. 

16.  Single- celled  animals 

356.  The  lowest  animals  in  the  scale  of 
existence  are  formed  of  a  single  cell,  which  in 
itself  performs  all  the  functions  of  life.  This 
cell  can  move  from  place  to  place,  by  flowing 
out  from  its  original  globular  form,  so  as  to 
make  a  projecting  arm,  and  by  continuing  to 
flow  in  the  same  direction  until  its  whole 
substance    has    passed   into  the  new  position. 


HOW     THE     ANIMAL     LIVES  209 

357.  This  cell  can  flow  out  so  as  to  surround 
microscopic  particles  and  draw  them  into  itself ; 
these  it  can  digest  and  use  to  increase  its  own 
substance.  By  reversing  this  process,  it  can 
throw  out  indigestible  and  waste  materials.  It 
can  absorb,  digest  and  build  into  its  own  sub- 
stance nutritive  matters  already  dissolved  in 
water;  and  it  can  drive  out  waste,  worn  out  and 
injm'ious  matters  which  it  holds  in  solution  in  its 
own  liquid. 

358.  TVlien  the  cell  grows  too  large,  it  can 
divide  into  two  independent  parts,  each  having 
all  the  vital  powers  which  belonged  to  the  parent 
cell   or   globule. 

359.  Thus  the  single -celled  animal  can  make 
of  any  part  of  its  body  limbs  for  moving,  hands 
for  grasping,  fingers  for  feeling,  stomach  for 
digesting,  channels  for  the  circulation  of  its 
nutritive  liquids,  as  well  as  organs  for  excretion 
and  for  the  increase  of  its  kind. 


Ic.  Many -celled  animals 

360.  In  all  the  higher  animals  there  is  not  one 
cell,  but  myriads  ;  and  these  cells  are  no  less 
essential  to  life  and  to  the  healthy  performance 
of  all  vital  functions  than  is  the  single  cell  of 
the  lowliest  organism.  In  the  complex  animal 
body,  however,  the   cells   build    up  solid   tissues 

N 


210  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICCLTTRE 

outside  themselves.  As  each  cell  becomes  im- 
prisoned in  a  minute  cavity  in  such  solid 
stnietm-e,  it  is  robbed  of  those  common  powei^s 
or  f  mictions  which  belong  to  the  single -celled 
animal,  and  is  specialized  for  the  performance 
of  one  constant,  unchanging  round  of  work. 
Each    cell    has  its  own  work  to   do. 

361.  Cells  may  carry  on  processes  of  nutri- 
tion. Some  cells  lie  in  the  microscopic  spaces 
left  in  the  hard  bone,  and  conduct  the  nutrition 
and  changes  in  its  substance.  Other  cells  he 
in  the  substance  of  muscle  or  sinew,  or  of 
brain,  or  of  some  other  tissue,  and  no  one 
of  these  can  construct  bone  nor  any  other 
structure  than  that  in  which  it  lies.  All  such 
cells  are  engaged  in  carrying  on  the  nutrition 
and  gi'owth  of  then-  respective  tissues,  and 
are  reserved  for  this  work  only. 

362.  Cells  may  carry  on  nervous  processes, 
being  set  apart  for  vital  work  of  a  kind  not 
directly  connected  with  nuti'ition.  Xeiwe  cells, — 
found  in  the  brain,  spinal-maiTow,  and  some 
other  parts, — receive  impressions  brought  over 
the  nerve  cords  from  distant  parts  of  the  body. 
They  generate  and  send  out  nerve  force  to 
other  parts.  Some  of  these  cells  are  set  in  mo- 
tion by  mental  acts. 

363.  Certain  other  cells,  which  line  microsco- 
pic sacs  in  organs  kno"^VQ  as  glands,   select  from 


HOW    THE     ANIMAL     LIVES  211 

the  blood  the  secretion  which  that  gland  is  ap- 
pointed to  furnish,  and  pour  it  out  through  the 
gland  ducts.  The  secretion  from  one  gland  is 
nutritious,  as  in  the  case  of  milk ;  that  from 
another  is  digestive,  as  in  the  secretion  of  the 
stomach;  and  from  a  third  it  is  waste  matter,  like 
sweat.  The  selection  from  the  nutritive  liquid  of 
the  blood  is  the  work  of  the  indi^-idual  cells,  and 
is  always  the  same  for  each  kind  of  gland. 

364.  The  cells  of  some  glands  construct  a  new 
substance,  which  is  not  secreted  but  poured  back 
into  the  blood.  Thus  the  liver  makes  glycogen, 
which  passes  into  grape  sugar,  and  serves  for 
the  production  of  heat,  muscular  work  and  nu- 
trition. 

365.  Some  cells  on  the  walls  of  the  intestines 
absorb  nutritive  and  other  matters  from  the 
liquid  contents  of  the  bowels  and  pass  them  on 
into  the  circulating  (blood  and  lymph)  vessels. 

366.  Besides  these  cells  which  become  im- 
prisoned in  their  particular  tissues,  and  the  work 
of  which  is  restricted  to  the  conducting  of  the 
gi'owth  or  other  functions  of  such  tissues,  there 
is  a  large  class  which  floats  free  in  the  liquids 
of  the  body.  The  red  and  white  blood  glob- 
ules and  lymph  cells  are  examples.  These 
globules  or  corpuscles  circulate  in  all  parts  of 
the  body,  thus  suggesting  the  freedom  of  the 
one- celled    animal.     But   limitations   have   been 


212  THE     PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

set  even  to  these,  the  red  globules  being 
mainly  carriers  of  oxygen,  while  the  white  also 
have  restricted  functions. 


2.  The  Food  of  Animals 
2a.  Kind  of  food 

367.  Food  may  be  either  vegetable  or  ani- 
mal.  Many  animals,  as  horses,  cattle  and 
sheep,  live  on  vegetables,  or  are  herbivorous ; 
while  others,  like  foxes  and  wolves,  eat  animal 
food  only,  or  are  carnivorous.  The  food  of 
the  herbivorous  animal  has  its  nutritive  i^rin- 
ciples  in  a  less  concentrated  condition,  and  the 
herbivora  are  accordingly  supidied  with  more 
capacious  digestive  organs.  The  same  holds 
true  of  grain -feeders  and  grass -feeders  among 
the  herbivora.  The  grain -fed  horse  has  much 
smaller  stomach  and  intestines  than  the  grass- 
fed  ox,  and  the  well-fed  domestic  rabbit  has  a 
mneh  more  spacious  alimentary  canal  than  his 
wild    ancestor. 

368.  Artificial  selection  and  forcing  of  meat- 
producing  animals  has  a  similar  effect.  The 
scrub  ox,  Texas  steer  and  buffalo  have  light  ab- 
domiual  contents,  while  the  pampered  short-horn, 
Hereford,  or  black-polled  ox  has  them  heavj- 
and  bulkv.     In  the  camivora  thev  are  still  more 


HOW    THE    ANIMAL    hlVES  213 

restricted.  The  intestine  of  the  ox  is  about  160 
feet  long,  that  of  the  horse  90  feet,  and  that 
of  the  dog  only  12  to  14  feet. 

2b.    Food  constituents 

369.  All  foods  must  contain  chemical  con- 
stituents which  will  serve  to  repair  the  waste  of 
the  body,  to  develop  growing  tissue,  and  to  sup- 
ply materials  for  the  different  secretions. 

370.  Aside  from  mineral  matters,  all  food 
constituents  which  can  build  up  the  tissues  must 
contain  nitrogen,  the  element  which  forms  four- 
fifths  of  the  atmosphere,  and  which  is  an  essen- 
tial part  of  all  body  tissues.  As  familiar  ex- 
amples of  such  nitrogenous  foods  or  aliments 
may  be  named  white  of  egg  (albumin),  milk 
curd  (casein),  and  one  of  the  soluble  parts  of 
flour  (gluten). 

371.  As  common  forms  of  foods  that  contaii? 
no  nitrogen,  and  which  cannot  form  tissues,  are 
starch,  sugar  and  fats.  These  are  used  up  or 
burned  in  the  system  to  produce  body  heat,  to 
stimulate  the  contraction  of  muscles,  and  to  fur- 
nish secretions  which  are  free  from  nitrogen, 
such  as  sugar  and  butter -fat  in  milk,  and  sugar 
(more  properly  glycogen  or  sugar -former)  in  the 
liver. 

372.  Both  sugar  and  fat,  however,  can  be 
formed   in  the    body  from    nitrogenous    food,  as 


214  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

in  the  milk  of  the  carnivorous  animal  when  red 
flesh  only  has  been  fed.  In  this  case  the  origi- 
nal nitrogenous  food  is  broken  up  into  two  or 
more  chemical  jiroducts,  one  of  which  contains 
only  carbon  and  hydrogen,  or  these  with  the 
addition  of  oxygen,  while  all  of  the  niti'ogen 
goes  to  other  product  or   products. 

.373.  Mineral  salts  (182a)  form  a  third  group 
of  food  princixjles.  These  are  essential  in  repair- 
ing the  waste  of  tissues,  and  in  forming  secre- 
tions like  milk,  bile  and  gastric  juice. 

374.  The  ideal  food  contains  all  of  these 
three  groups  in  forms  which  can  he  dissolved, 
digested  and  assimilated  into  the  animal  tissues. 
Milk  is  an  ideal  food.  In  it  the  non- nitroge- 
nous aliments — sugar,  butter -fat — are  united  with 
the  nitrogenous — casein,  albumin, — and  with  the 
salts  in  proportions  adapted  to  the  needs  of  the 
system. 

375.  A  well-balanced  ration  for  the  adult 
animal  is  one  in  which  these  different  classes  of 
food  constituents  bear  a  somewhat  definite  rela- 
tion to  each  other,  due  allowance  being  made  for 
the  uses  to  which  the  animal  is  put.  The  grow- 
iag,  working  or  milking  animal  requires  more  of 
the  nitrogenous  elements,  while  the  fattening  ani- 
mal may  exchange  much  of  this  for  the  non- 
nitrogenous. 

37G.    The  li^ing  body,  however,  is  not   like  a 


HOW    THE    ANIMAL    Lm:S  215 

simple  machine,  which  can,  in  all  cases,  turn  out 
a  product  exactly  corresponding  to  the  chemical 
food  elements  which  are  turned  into  it.  The 
vital  element  has  always  to  be  reckoned  with. 
One  animal  demands  a  little  more  of  this  class  of 
aliment,  and  another  a  little  more  of  that,  in 
order  to  secure  the  best  results;  while  in  all  cases 
palatability  and  facility  of  digestion  have  a 
controlling  influence. 

3.   Digestion   of  Food 
3a.    What  digestion  is 

377.  Digestion  is  the  process  by  means  of 
which  the  food  becomes  dissolved  so  as  to  be 
taken  up  by  the  blood.  It  takes  place  in  the 
alimentary  canal, — the  mouth,  stomach,  and 
intestines. 

378.  Digestion  takes  place  under  the  action 
of  different  secretions,  each  of  which  operates 
on  special  constituents  of  the  food.  Considered 
in  the  order  in  which  they  mingle  with  the 
food,  these  digestive  secretions  are:  (a)  saliva; 
(b)  gastric  juice;  (c)  bile,  (d)  pancreatic  juice, 
(e)  intestinal  juice. 

36.    The  saliva 

379.  Saliva  is  furnished  by  a  group  of  glands 
located    under   the    tongue,    in    the    cheeks,    and 


216  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICFLTURE 

under  the  ears.  They  discharge  their  secretions 
into  the  mouth.  In  grain -eating  birds,  similar 
glands  surround  the  crop,— an  enlargement  of 
the  gullet  in  the  region  of  the  neck. 

380.  A  ferment  (ptyalin)  in  the  saliva  acts 
on  the  starch  in  the  food,  causing  it  to  chemi- 
cally unite  with  additional  water  and  become 
transformed  into  sugar.  Eaw  starch  is  insoluble 
in  water,  and  cannot  pass  into  the  circulation  ; 
but  the  sugar  formed  from  it  is  freely  soluble, 
can  be  readily  absorbed  into  the  blood,  and 
contributes  to  the  activity,  growth  and  nourish- 
ment of  the  body. 

381.  The  ptyalin  acts  slowly  on  raw  starch, 
and  much  more  rapidly  on  boiled  starch,  so  that 
cooking  of  vegetable  food  favors  its  digestion. 
It  acts  best  in  the  absence  of  acids.  It  is 
less  active  when  weak  organic  acids  are  present, 
and  its  action  is  arrested  in  the  stomach  by  the 
free  muriatic  or  hydi'ochloric  a<?id. 

382.  In  animals  with  one  stomach,  therefore, 
it  is  important  that  the  food  should  be  thor- 
oughly masticated  and  saturated  with  saliva,  and 
not  bolted  whole,  or  imperfectly  insalivated.  In 
ruminants  (or  cud- chewing  animals),  as  cattle, 
sheep  and  goats,  the  food  is  long  delayed  in  the 
first  three  stomachs,  in  which  any  slight  sour- 
ness which  may  exist  is  due  to  mild  organic 
acids    only ;      and,    therefore,     there    is     ample 


HOW     THE     ANIMAL     LIVES  217 

time   and    opportunity   for   the   full    digestion   of 
the  starch. 

383.  Digestion  is  further  favored  in  these 
animals  by  the  chewing  of  the  cud,  by  means 
of  which  the  solid  portions  are  returned  to 
the  mouth,  morsel  by  morsel,  to  be  leisurely 
gi'ound  down  and  again  saturated  with  saliva. 
Digestion  is  more  thoroughly  accomplished  in 
the  third  stomach,  in  which  the  food  is 
ground  to  the  finest  pulp  between  the  one 
hundred  folds,  large  and  small,  which  fill  its 
interior. 

384.  This  thorough  breaking  up  or  com- 
minution prepares  the  food  for  the  easy  digestion 
of  its  nitrogenous  principles  in  the  fourth  stom- 
ach. The  removal  of  the  starch  renders  even 
the  finest  particles  of  food  more  porous,  and 
permits  the  prompt  and  speedy  action  of  the 
stomach  juices  on  its  whole  substance. 

385.  For  some  time  after  birth,  the  salivary 
glands  produce  little  saliva,  and  still  less  ptya- 
lin.  This  is  in  keeping  with  the  exclusive  milk 
diet,  in  which  there  is  no  starch  to  be  acted 
upon.  For  this  reason,  any  starchy  food  in  the 
early  days  of  life  is  out  of  place;  for,  as  it 
cannot  be  changed  into  sugar,  nor  absorbed 
until  it  has  passed  through  the  stomach  and 
reached  the  intestine,  it  is  liable  to  ferment 
and   to  form  irritant   products,    and   indigestion. 


21S  THz    ??.::: ::?iz=   of   ag?.::717T3z 

The    add:  7:  11  -     h    elements    to    the    food 

shoidd  be  n.  :     7     a  little  at  a  time. 

3c.  The  gastric  jmee 

386.  The  stomach  produces  three  digestive 
principles,  which  may  be  separately  considered : 
nmriatic  or  hydrochloric  acid,  pepsin,  the  milk- 
cordling  ferment.  These  materials  comprise  the 
gastric   juice. 

387.  Free  nmriatic  acid  is  strongly  antiseptic, 
especially  checking  sach  fermentations  as  occur 
in  the  alkaline  or  nentral  saliva,  in  the  first  three 
stomachs  of  rmninants  or  in  the  crop  of  the 
bird.  This  exposure  of  the  food  successively  to 
alkaline  saliva  and  acid  gastric  juice  kUls  off 
myriads  of  bacterial  ferments  which  would  other- 
wise reach  the  intestine,  to  prove  irritant  or 
poisonous.  Many  still  pass  into  the  intestine  in 
masses  of  undigested  food,  or  because  they  can 
survive  both  alkaline  and  acid  solutions,  or 
because  they  have  passed  into  the  condition  of 
sp  :-.  — 1-  ?h,  like  the  dried  seed  of  plants,  is 
comp>     '7  indestructible. 

3S^  1  mmriatic  acid  further  softens,  disin- 
tesra*'^-.  t.  issolves  the  various  nitrogenous 
f-:  7  -r-  gulated  albumin,  fibrin,  gela^ 

tii^  :::     l;        r^7^!e  gluten). 

:^   .    Peisii-  :.-  z.  ;-:inent  which  is  secreted  in 


HOW    THE    ANIMAL    LIVES  2 19 

glands  found  in  the  end  of  the  stomach  nearest 
to  the  mtestine.  It  acts  on  the  nitrogenous 
principles  in  the  food,  which  are  made  to  take 
up  water,  and  to  change  into  a  much  more 
stable  and   drffusible   liquid   called  a  peptone. 

390.  Peptones  of  a  great  number  of  different 
kinds  are  produced  from  the  varied  food  prin- 
ciples—from such  as  fibrin,  albumin,  gluten, 
casein.  The  peptones  all  agree  in  certain  com- 
mon characters  :  (a)  they  are  easily  and  com- 
pletely soluble  in  water  (fibrin,  coagulated  al- 
bumin and  casein  themselves,  are  not  soluble)  ; 
(6)  they  filter  rapidly  through  animal  mem- 
branes, such  as  a  bladder  (the  agents  from  which 
they  are  derived  do  not) ;  (c)  they  are  not 
thrown  down  as  solids  by  boiling  or  by  strong 
acids  (albumin  and  casein  are  precipitated  by 
strong  acids,  and  albumin  by  boiling). 

391.  Peptones  are  thus  easily  absorbed  into 
the  blood,  while  the  absorption  of  the  original 
principles  from  which  they  are  derived  would  be 
exceedingly  slow  and  difficult.  Pepsin  acts  nuicli 
more  rapidly  in  an  acid  medium,  no  that  it  is 
specially  adapted  to  cooperate  with  the  muriatic 
acid. 

392.  The  milk -curdling  ferment  is  the  product 
of  the  gastric  glands.  It  is  utilized  in  the 
manufacture  of  cheese.  Like  pepsin,  it  acts  best 
in  the  presence  of   muriatic   acid.      One  part   of 


220  THE    FBIXCIFLBS    OF    AGRICULTUEE 

this    feni_T_:    will    coagulate    800,000    parts    of 
casein- 

393.  In  birds  the  gastric  juice  is  secreted  ia 
an  enlargement  of  the  gnllet  (proventriculns) 
just  above  the  ^zzard.  The  strong  muscles 
and  eartUaginons  lining  of  the  gizzard  serve, 
with  the  pebbles  swallowed,  to  grind  down  the 
food  into  a  fine  pnlp  and  to  mix  it  intimately 
with  the  gastric  jnice. 

3d.  Imtestimal  digestion, 

394.  Under  the  action  of  the  saliva  and  gas- 
tric juice,  the  greater  part  of  the  starch  and  ni- 
trogenons  matter  is  nsaally  digested  before  the 
food  materials  pass  from  the  stomach  into  the 
intestines.  The  products  of  digestion  are  mainly 
sugar  and  peptones.  The  fatty  matters, — set  free 
by  the  digestion  of  their  nitrogenous  envelopes,— 
the  undigestible  portions,  and  such  digestible 
matters  as  are  as  yet  not  acted  on,  pass  on  into 
the  intestines,  mostly  in  a  finely  divided  semi- 
fluid condition. 

395.  In  the  intestines,  the  materials  are  acted 
on  by  bile,  pancreatic  juice,  and  intestinal  jnice. 
These  fluids  are  alkaline- 

396.  Bile  is  secreted  by  the  liver.  It  is 
poured  into  the  intestines  a  few  inches  beyond  the 
stomach.  It  renders  the  contents  alkaline,  checks 
fermentation,  stinmlates   the   movements   of    the 


HOW    THE    ANIMAL     LIVES  221 

bowels,  and  transforms  their  fatty  contents  into  an 
emulsion  which  penetrates  an  animal  membrane, 
and  is  absorbed  with  great  rapidity. 

397.  Bile  has,  besides,  a  limited'  power  of 
changing  starch  into  sugar.  It  is  also  useful  in 
carrying  waste  matters  out  of  the  body. 

398.  Pancreatic  juice  is  poured  into  the  in- 
testines by  a  canal  which  in  certain  animals  unites 
with  the  bile  duct.  It  contains  at  least  fom* 
different  ferments :  (a)  Amylopsin,  which,  at 
the  body  temperature,  rapidly  transforms  starch 
and  even  gum  into  sugar,  thus  completing  any 
imperfect  work  of  the  saliva  ;  (6)  trypsin, 
which,  in  an  alkaline  liquid,  changes  nitroge- 
nous matters  into  peptones,  thus  finishing  any 
imperfect  work  of  the  stomach  ;  (c)  a  milk-cur- 
dling ferment. 

399.  The  pancreatic  juice,  as  a  whole,  acts 
like  the  bile  in  causing  fats  to  form  emulsions. 
It  even  breaks  up  the  fats  into  fatty  acids  and 
glycerin. 

400.  Intestinal  juice  is  a  complex  mixture  of 
the  different  secretions  already  named,  together 
with  the  products  of  the  glands  of  the  intestinal 
walls.  The  secretions  of  these  walls  act  like 
pancreatic  juice,  only  less  powerfully. 

401.  As  a  whole,  the  digestive  agents  thrown 
into  the  intestines  cover  the  whole  field  of  di- 
gestion, and   largely  make   up   for  any  defective 


L'L'2  THE     PRINCIPLES     OF     AGRICIXTURE 

work  of  the  saliva  and  gastric  juice.  Even  in 
cases  in  which  the  stomach  has  been  removed. 
the  intestines  have  taken  up  its  functions  and 
have  maintained   a   fair  measure  of   health. 


•4.  Absorption  of  the  Digested  blatters 

4a.  Hoic  absorption  takes  place 

402.  The  food  principles,  digested  or  emul- 
sionized,  as  before  stated,  are  now  absorbed  into 
the  blood  and  lymph  vessels,  chiefly  through  the 
villi  of  the  intestines.  These  villi  are  minute  hau'- 
like  projections  from  the  lining  membrane,  from 
"sV  to  -gV  of  an  inch  in  length.  They  are  covered 
with  soft  cells,  the  deeper  ends  of  which  reach 
the  capillaiy  blood-vessels  and  lymphatics  occu- 
pying the   interior  of  each  villus. 

403.  The  cells  of  the  villus  take  in  the  lif[uid 
products  of  digestion,  and  pass  them  on  into  the 
vessels  beneath.  By  a  muscular  contraction  of 
the  villus,  these  vessels  are  emptied  at  frequent 
intervals  into  the  larger  veins  and  lymphatics  in 
the  walls  of  the  intestines. 

404.  The  interior  of  the  small  intestine, 
which  immediately  follows  the  stomachy  is 
covered  throughout  by  these  villi.  Owing  to 
the  rapid  absorption  conducted  by  them,  the 
soluble    contents    of    this    intestine    are   in   great 


flow    THE     ANIMAL    LIVES  223 

part  removed   and  transferred  to  the  circulatory 
system  before  the  large  intestine  is  reached. 

46.   Destination  of  the  rich  Mood  from  the  intestines 

405.  The  veins  from  the  stomach  and  intes- 
tines carry  the  I'ich  products  of  digestion  into 
the  capillaries  of  the  liver.  Here  they  not  only 
contribute  to  produce  bile,  but  also  new  combi- 
nations of  nutritive  and  other  compounds,  which 
pass  into  the  general  circulation. 

406.  One  of  the  most  important  of  these  new 
products  is  sugar,  which,  as  already  stated  (372), 
is  formed  even  in  the  liver  of  animals  fed  on  a 
strictly  carnivorous  diet.  The  importance  of  this 
product  may  be  inferred  from  the  fact  that  the 
liver  is  very  large  in  the  young  and  rapidly- 
growing  animal,  and  also  in  mature  animals  of 
a  meat -producing  race  :  these  animals  have  ex- 
traordinary powers  of  digestion  and   fattening. 

407.  Another  important  function  of  the  liver 
is  the  transformation, — largely  by  union  with 
additional  oxygen, — of  worn-out  or  effete  red 
globules,  and  of  much  of  the  useless  nitrogenous 
material  in  the  blood,  into  urea  and  other  solu- 
ble products.  These  products  are  finally  passed 
off  by  the  kidneys.  They  afford  a  stimulus  to 
secretion  by  the  kidneys,  and  supply  an  abun- 
dance of  material  which  can  pass  readily  through 


224  THE     PRINCIPLES     OF     AGRICULTURE 

these    organs    without  causing    irritation   or  de- 
rangement. 

408.  Another  important  liver  function  is  the 
transformation  of  peptones  (which  are  poisonous 
when  thrown  into  the  blood  in  any  considerable 
quantity)  into  products  which  are  non- poisonous, 
and  are  capable  of  assimilation.  These  pro- 
ducts foiTu  tissue,  or  fulfill  some  other  im- 
portant  use  in   the  Vjody. 

409.  Still  another  important  use  of  the  liver 
is  to  transform  into  harmless  compounds  the 
poisonous  products  of  bacterial  fermentations 
(such  as  ptomaines  and  toxins).  These  occur 
in  the  contents  of  the  intestine,  and  might  often 
prove  deadly  if  allowed  to  pass  this  guardian 
sentinel — the  liver — in  any  considerable  amount. 


5.   Besjnration,   or   Breathing 

5a.    Wh^t  hreathing  is 

410.  Breathing  consists  in  the  substitution  of 
oxygen  of  the  air  for  carbon  dioxid  in  the  blood 
and  tissues  of  the  animal  body.  It  results  in 
the  combination  of  the  oxygen  of  the  air  with 
certain  organic  constituents  of  the  system  ;  and 
it  fits  these  constituents  for  various  uses,  or  for 
ehmination  as  waste  matters. 


HOW  THE    ANIMAL    LIVES  225 

411.  Ill  the  main,  the  air  is  changed  in 
breathing  as  follows  :  carbon 

Oxygen      Nitrogen      dioxid 
Inspired,  or  breathed-in  air  contains  .    .    .  20.81         79.15  .04 

Expired,  or  breathed-out  air  contains  .    .    .  16.033       79.557       4.38 

In  every  100  parts,  air  loses,  by  being  breathed, 
about  4  parts  of  oxygen,  and  gains  about  4 
parts  of   carbon  dioxid. 

412.  In  breathing,  the  air  is  also  charged 
with  water  vapor  and  with  small  quantities  of 
ammonia  and  marsh  gas.  It  also  receives  a 
volatile  organic  matter,  which  may  be  foetid, 
and  when  condensed  in  water  soon  develops  a 
putrid  odor. 

413.  In  the  breathing  process,  the  blood  and 
the  air  are  brought  into  the  closest  possible 
contact.  One -celled  animals  breathe  through 
the  entire  surface,  fishes  through  gills  waved  in 
the  water,  from  which  they  abstract  oxygen, 
frogs  through  the  walls  of  a  simple  air- sac, 
ill  which  the  blood-vessels  circulate.  In  warm- 
blooded animals,  this  sac  or  lung  is  divided 
throughout  into  myriads  of  minute  air- sacs  or 
cells,  varying  from  o^  to  to  of  an  inch  in 
diameter.  The  walls  are  so  thin  that  the  blood 
flowing  through  their  capillary  vessels  is  con- 
stantly exposed,  on  two  sides,  to  the  air  with 
which  they  are  filled.  The  membrane  consti- 
tuting the  walls  of  these  sacs  is  so  exceedingly 

o 


226  THE     PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICrLTTKE 

thin  and  permeable  that  gases  pa^s  through  it 
with  great  rapidity, — the  oxygen  from  the  air 
to  the  blood,  and  the  carbon  dioxid  from  the 
blood  to  the  air. 

oh.    Blood -changes  in  respiration 

414.  The  heart  of  warm-blooded  animals 
is  composed  of  two  double  cavities,  right  and 
left,  which  are  qnite  distinct  from  each  other. 
The  left  side  pumps  the  blood  into  the  arte- 
ries of  the  system  at  large,  whence  it  returns 
through  the  veins  to  the  right  side.  The  right 
side,  in  its  turn,  pumps  the  blood  into  the  arte- 
ries of  the  limgs,  whence  it  returns  by  the  lung- 
veins  to  the  left  side.  In  this  way  the  blood 
is  circulated  first  through  the  lungs,  and  then 
through  the   tissues  of   the  rest  of  the  body. 

415.  The  blood  is  of  a  dark  red  or  purple 
color  as  found  in  the  veins,  in  the  right  side 
of  the  heart,  and  in  the  arteries  of  the  limgs. 
It  is  of  a  bright  crimson  hue  as  it  returns 
from  the  lungs  and  passes  through  the  left 
side  of  the  heart  and  the  arteries  to  all  parts 
of  the  body.  The  varying  color  is  determined 
by  the  presence  of  a  larger  amount  of  oxygen 
in  the  arterial  (bright  crimson)  blood,  and  by 
its  comparative  absence,  and  by  the  presence 
of  an  excess  of  carbon  dioxid,  in  the  venous 
(dark    red)  blood.  - 


HOW    THE    ANIMAL    LIVES  227 

416.  The  difference   between  the  artery- blood 
and  vein- blood  is  shown  in  the  following  table  : 

Tols.  Vols,  of 

of  carbon 

oxygen  dioxid 

From  100  vols,  of  arterial  blood  tnav  be  obtained  .  .          20  39 

venous  "         "         ..8  to  12       46 

417.  The  excess  of  oxygen  in  the  arterial 
blood  is  used  up  as  it  passes  through  the  capil- 
laries, and  is  replaced  by  carbon  dioxid.  The 
excess  of  carbon  dioxid  brought  back  by  the 
venous  blood  is  thrown  out  into  the  air  fill- 
ing the  lungs,  and  is  replaced  in  the  blood 
by  the  oxygen  taken  up  from  the  air.  The 
carbon  dioxid  is  made  up  of  one  atom  of  car- 
bon obtained  by  the  breaking  up  of  the  tis- 
sues or  blood  elements  which  contain  carbon, 
and  of  two  atoms  of  oxygen  carried  to  such 
tissue  or  element  by  the  blood. 

418.  Breathing,  therefore,  or  the  combination 
of  oxygen  with  carbon  to  form  the  carbon  di- 
oxid, really  does  not  take  place  in  the  lungs, 
but  in  the  various  parts  of  the  body  to  which 
the  blood  carries  the  oxygen. 

5c.    Amount  of  air  required 

419.  The  amount  of  carbon  dioxid  passed 
into  the  blood  and  exhaled  by  the  lungs  is  in- 
creased by  exercise,  work,  sunshine  and  food  ; 
hence    the   necessity    for   more    rapid   breathing 


228  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

under  such  conditious.  The  amount  also  varies 
with  the  kind  of  animal.  The  pig  produces 
more  in  proportion  to  his  body  weight  than 
the  carnivora,  rabbit,  and  fowl  ;  and  these 
again  produce  a  larger  proportionate  amount 
than  the  horse   or  the  ox. 

•420.  Air  which  contains  10  to  12  per  cent 
of  carbon  dioxid  will  no  longer  sustain  life.  The 
deleterious  effect  is  due  partly  to  the  lack  of 
oxygen  in  such  re -breathed  air,  but  also  to  the 
excess  of  the  poisonous  carbon  dioxid,  volatile 
organic  matter,  and  other  injurious  products. 
Air  which  contains  even  1  per  cent  of  carbon 
dioxid  produced  by  breathing  is  injurious  to  a 
marked  degree.  In  a  perfectly  close  place, 
where  there  can  l>e  no  access  of  fresh  aii-,  a 
horse  would  contaminate  to  this  extent  over  7,000 
cubic  feet  in  24  hours. 

•421.  The  question  of  stable  space,  however,  is 
dependent  on  the  amount  of  air  that  can  be 
introduced  by  ventilation  in  a  given  length  of 
time.  The  tighter  the  building  and  the  less  the 
admission  of  fresh  air,  the  greater  must  be  the 
area  supplied  ;  while  the  greater  the  facility  for 
the  entrance  of  fresh  air,  the  smaller  need  be  the 
space  per  animal.  If  the  whole  of  the  air  could 
be  removed  every  three  hours,  1,000  cubic  feet 
per  horse  or  cow  would  suflSce  to  keep  the  air 
sufficiently  pure  and  wholesome. 


HOW    THE    ANIMAL     LIVES  229 

6.   Work;   Waste;  Best 

6a.    Waste  of  tissue 

422.  Under  bodily  labor,  the  elements  of  the 
muscles  are  used  up  to  a  certain  extent,  while 
heat  and  waste  matters  are  produced.  A 
period  of  rest  is  required  to  allow  for  repair  of 
this  waste.  We  see  this  carried  out  in  all  healthy 
bodily  functions.  The  heart,  after  each  contrac- 
tion, has  a  short  rest  before  the  commencement 
of  the  next  contraction.  The  muscles  that  carry 
on  breathing  work  in  relays,  those  that  dilate  the 
chest  resting  while  those  that  compress  the 
chest  are  in  operation.  Then  both  rest  for  an 
interval  before  the  next  inspiration  is  com- 
menced. This  provides  for  rest  and  repair  of 
both  the  muscles  and  nerves.  Except  for  such 
rest,  both  would  soon  be  exhausted  and  wasted 
beyond   the  power  of  work. 

423.  The  waste  of  tissues,  however,  is  not 
always  in  exact  proportion  to  the  amount  of 
work.  On  the  contrary,  it  has  been  shown  by 
careful  experiment  that  the  waste  of  the  working 
muscle  is  but  a  small  part  of  the  expenditure 
made.  The  heat-  or  fat-producing  matters  in 
the  food  are  also  used  up  in  such  work. 
The  process  may  be  likened  to  fuel  supplied  to 
the  engine,  which  contributes  to  keep  it  running 


230  THE  .  PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICCLTURE 

with  the  expenditure  of  but  a  small  part  of  its 
own  proper  substance.  Thus  the  starch  and 
sugar  in  the  diet  contribute  not  only  to  main- 
tain heat  and  to  lav  up  fat,  but  also  to  render 
possible  a  large  expenditure  of  muscular  energy 
and  work. 

6b.    Applications  to  practice 

424.  Such  expenditure  of  food  and  muscular 
energy  in  producing  heat  and  work  prevents  the 
la%i.ng  out  of  the  same  capital  for  other  uses, 
such  as  gi-owth,  fattening  or  milking.  In  do- 
mestic animals,  which  can  be  profitably  kept 
only  when  adapted  to  special  uses,  expenditui'es 
in  other  directions  must  be  limited  as  far  as  may 
be  in  keeping  with  the  maintenance  of  health. 

425.  For  rapid  fattening,  rest  and  warmth  and 
seclusion  are  favorable.  Even  the  milch  cow,  put 
in  the  stable  in  good  health,  may  be  made  to 
give  more  milk  for  a  time  when  kept  idle  in  a 
warm  stall  than  when  tui'ned  out  to  gather  her 
food  from  a  pasture.  This,  however,  cannot  be 
safely  carried  to  extremes.  The  continuous  dis- 
use of  the  muscles  tends  to  their  waste  and 
degeneration,  to  an  impoverishment  of  the  blood, 
to  a  loss  of  tone  of  the  nervous  and  other  organs, 
and  to  a  gradual  lowering  of  vitality.  For  ani- 
mals that  are  soon  to  be  sacrificed  to  the  butcher, 
this  is   not  to  be    considered  ;    but   for   such    as 


HOW    THE     ANDIAL     LIVES  231 

are  to  reproduce  their  kind  and  keep  up  the 
future  herd,  a  moderate  amount  of  muscular 
exercise  is  as  important  as  suitable  food  and 
hygiene. 

426.  The  animal  body  is  a  very  complex 
organism,  with  an  almost  endless  variety  of  parts 
and  functions,  each  of  which  is  more  or  less 
essential  to  the  full  usefulness  of  the  whole.  The 
best  condition  of  bodily  health  is  that  in  which 
all  of  these  are  properly  adjusted  to  each  other 
and  to  the  surroundings.  In  the  case  of  farm 
animals,  the  complexity  is  the  gi'eater  because  the 
natural  functions  must  be  developed  here  and 
restricted  there,  to  make  them  a  profitable  pos- 
session; and  all  this  must  be  done  within  limits 
which  will  be  compatible  with  the  maintenance  of 
health  and  viaror. 


SrOGESTIOXS   Oy  chapter  XIV 

359rt.  The  best  illustration  which  the  pupil  can  secure  of  a 
single-celled  structureless  organism  is  the  amoeba  (Fig.  84 h 
This  lowly  animal  lives  in  stagnant  pools,  and  can  be  secured 
\>y  scraping  the  scum  ofiE  the  stems  and  leaves  of  water  plants, 
lu  its  larger  forms  it  is  barely  visible  to  the  naked  eye. 

3595.  The  Fig.  85  shows  a  spindle-shaped  (involuntary)  con- 
tractile cell  or  fiber  from  the  muscular  layer  of  the  intestine, 
showing  nucleus  in  white  and  nucleolus  in  black.  It  has  no 
such  variety  of  functions  as  the  amoeba  has. 

360a.  A  part  or  an  organism  is  said  to  be  specialized  when 
it   is   fitted   for  some   particular  work,  rather  than   for  general 


232 


THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 


work.  A  cell  wtich  has  to  do  only  with  nutrition  is  special- 
ized ;  one  which  has  to  do  with  nutrition,  sensation,  locomotion, 
and   reproduction,    is   generalized.    A  ceD   may  be    said    to   be 


Rs.  84.  Amoeba,  showing  large,  rotuid  niiclexLS 
near  the  top,  enclosing  a  niieleoliis,  many 
grannies,  protruding  arms  of  protoplasm.  Pig.  85. 

and  "white  spac-«  ronnd  which  the  proto-  Muscle  cell, 

plasm  has  flowed.    Magnified  200  diameters.  Magnified. 

still  further  specialized  when  it  carries  on  some  particular  or 
spe^iial  part  of  nutrition. 

363a.  A  secretion  is  a  material  derived  from  the  blood  and 
poured  out  into  the  body.  When  this  material  is  of  no  further 
use,  it  is  eliminated,  or  removed  from  the  body,  and  is  known  as 
an  excretion.  The  saliva,  eye-water,  bile,  gastric  juice,  are  ex- 
amples of  secretions. 

363Z>.  Glands  are  secreting  organs.  Thus  the  salivary  glands 
secrete  or  make  the  saliva  or  spittle,  from  the  blood.  The 
liver  is  a  gigantic    gland,  secreting  bile  and  other  materials. 

364a.  Glycogen  is  very  like  starch.  In  fact,  it  has  the  same 
chemical  composition. CcHjoO;.  It  is  rapidly  changed  into  grape 
sugar  or  glucose  by  the  action  of  saliva  and  other  juices,  and 
it  then  becomes  available  for  the  building  of  tissue  or  keeping 
up  the  bodily  heat. 


HOW    THE     ANIMAL     LIVES 


233 


365fl.  Lymph  is  a  product  of  the  blood.  It  is  a  pale  liquid 
which  transudes  from  the  thin  or  capillary  blood  vessels,  and  is 
used  to  nourish  and  build  up  the  tissues.  The  lymphatic  system 
carries  food  materials  to  the  places  where  they  are  needed. 
See  4096. 

367rt.  By  the  alimentary  canal  is  meant  the  whole  digestive 
tract,  beginning  with  the  mouth,  and  comprising  the  gullet  or 
esophagus,  the  stomach,  the  small  and  large  intestines. 

371a.  The  fats  contain  carbon, 
hydrogen  and  oxygen,  but  the  oxy- 
gen is  in  small  proportion.  One 
of  the  common  fats  (palmatin)  has 
the  composition  CsiHggOe  ;  another 
(stearin)  is  C5TH110O6. 

379rt.  In  physiology,  the  word 
ferment  is  used  to  designate  sub- 
stances which  have  power  to  make 
starch-like  materials  soluble  by  con- 
verting them  into  sugar-like  materi- 
als. These  ferments,  of  which  ptyalin 
is  one,  are  secretions.  They  are  also 
called  enzyms.  These  secretions 
may  be  the  products  of  cells  in  the 
animal  body  or  of  independent  micro- 
organisms. The  micro-organisms  are  themselves  often  called 
ferments  (35a). 

382a.  The  single  stomach  of  a  carnivorous  animal  is  shown 
in  Fig.  86.  The  stomach  of  a  ruminant  is  well  illustrated  in 
Fig.  87,  the  front  walls  being  cut  away  to  show  the  internal 
structure.  It  has  four  divisions  :  C,  paunch  ;  R,  reticulum  ;  N, 
manifolds  ;   O,  the  true   digesting  stomach. 

38.3a.  There  are  various  experiments  which  the  pupil  can 
perform.  Mix  a  little  well -boiled  starch  with  a  small  quantity 
of  saliva,  and  after  a  time  it  will  be  found  to  have  become 
sweet.  If  at  the  outset  a  drop  of  solution  of  iodine  is  added 
to  the  mixture  it  will  produce  a  blue  color  (2036).  As  the 
starch  is  changed  into  sugar,  this  color  gradually  fades  and  in 
the  end  disappears. 


Fig.  86.    Stomach  of  dog. 


234 


THE     PKIXCIPLES     OF     AGRICTLTTEE 


387a.  An  antiseptic  is  any  material  which  destroys  germs 
or  bacteria  (284a).  The  muriatic  or  hydrochloric  acid  is  present 
in  small  amounts,  ranging  from  0.2  to  0.8  and  upward  in  1,000 
parts  in  the  different  kinds  of  animals. 

3876.  A  substance  may  be  acid  or  sour,  in  which  ease  it 
turns  blue  litmus  red  (153,  153a).    It  may  be  alkaline,  as  lye. 


Pig.  87.    Stonuu^'a  of  sheep. 


CWp  and 


in  which    case  it   turns   red   litmus   blue.      I:    1117  -      -:il, 

giving  neither  reaction. 

387c.  Flowerless  plants,  of  which  fungi,  ferns,  and  baeteria 
are  examples,  do  not  produce  seeds,  but  spores.  These  spores 
are  usually  single  cells,  and  contain  no  embryo.  They  ean 
usually  grow,  even  after  becoming   dry.     Spores  are  eonummly 


HOW     THE     ANIMAL     LIVES  235 

more  difficult  to  kill  than  the  organism   is  when  in   an    actively 
growing   condition. 

390rt.  A  precipitate,  in  chemistry,  is  a  more  or  less  solid 
material,  which  is  the  result  of  chemical  action,  and  which  settles 
to  the  bottom  of  the  liquid  in  which  it  is  formed.  Thus,  let  the 
pupil  blow  through  a  straw  into  a  bottle  of  lime  water.  The 
liquid  will  become  cloudy,  and  after  a  time  the  sediment  will 
settle  to  the  bottom.  The  pupil  has  added  the  carbon  dioxid 
(CO2)  of  his  breath  to  the  lime  water,  and  carbonate  of  lime 
(or  limestone)  has  been  formed.     Compare  194a. 

392a.  The  action  of  the  gastric  juice  may  be  familiarly  seen 
in  the  curdling  of  milk  in  the  cheese  factory  by  means  of 
rennet.  A  little  mince-meat  mixed  with  the  scrapings  of  the 
lining  membrane  of  a  pig's  stomach,  rendered  slightly  acid 
by  a  drop  or  two  of  muriatic  acid  and  kept  near  blood-heat 
(96°  F),  will  soon  be  completely  dissolved,  with  the  formation 
of  peptone. 

392ft.  Rennet  is  the  digestive  principle  derived  from  the 
fourth  stomach  of  ruminants  (O,  Fig.  87).  This  stomach  is 
taken  from  calves  and  dried  ;  and  the  stomach  itself  is  then 
spoken  of  as  rennet.  The  stomach  of  adult  animals  could  also 
be  used,  if   necessary. 

393a.  The  gastric  apparatus  of  a  chicken  is  shown  in  Fig. 
88.  The  crop  is  at  a,  the  proventriculus  at  b,  and  the  gizzard 
at  c. 

396a.  An  emulsion  is  that  condition  in  which  fatty  or 
oily  materials  are  so  intimately  mixed  with  the  liquid  in  which 
they  are  placed  that  they  act  much  as  if  they  were  in  actual 
solution,  even  passing  through  membranes.  Most  farmers  are 
now  familiar  with  the  kerosene  emulsion,  used  as  an  insecti- 
cide  (296a). 

399a.  Glycerin  is  a  colorless  liquid  which  is  associated  with 
fats  or  fat-acids,  and  which  may  be  derived  from  them.  Its 
composition  is  C3H5(OH)3.  It  is  often  made  from  the  fats  by 
artificial  means,  and  is  used  in  medicine  and  the  arts.  Also 
spelled  glycerine. 

402a.  Two  villi  are  shown  in  Fig.  89.  The  singular  form  of 
the  word  is  villus. 


236 


THE    PRINCIPLES    OP    AGRICULTURK 


404d.  In  eoxmeetion  with  intestinal  digestion  and  absorption, 
tiie  bile  fills  a  specially  important  eeonomie  function,  in  sup- 
plying many  of  its  ingredients  to  be  used  over  and  over  again 
in  the  course  of  the  same  day.  The  bile  stimulates  in  a  high 
degree  the  absorption  of  the  digested  products,  entering  with 
them  into  the  Teins.  As  all  the  blood  returning  from  the 
intestines  must  pass  through  the  lirer,  the  elements  of  the 
absorbed  bile  are  secreted  anew  and  once  more  poured  into  the 
intestine.  Henee  a  small  amount  of  bile  performs  a  very  large 
amount  of  work ;  and  henee,  too,  any  suspension  of  the  secre- 
tion of  bile  interferes  seriously  with  the  general  health. 

409a.  A  ptomaine  (pronounced  to-main)  is  a  material  formed 
from  the  decomposition  of  dead  ti^ue.  It  is  alkaline,  and  often 
poisonous.  The  poison  in  unwholesome  ice-cream,  for  example, 
is  a  ptomaine.  Ptomaines  often  result  from  the  destmctlTe 
work  of  microbes.  The  term  toxin  is  applied  to  a  poisonous 
product  of  fermentation,  whether  alkaline  or  neutral. 

4096.  It  may  be  well  to  speak  of  the  destination  of  the 
ehyle.     Chyle    is   the    liquid   formed   of    the   materials   absorbed 

from  the  bowels  into  the 
lymph  vessels.  It  is  albu- 
minous (nitn^enous)  and 
fatty,  with  a  white,  milky 
eolor.  This,  like  the  lymph 
in  the  other  lymph  vessels 
in  various  parts  of  the 
body,  contains  white, 
spherical,  mieroseopie 
cells,  which  are  greatly 
increased  after  passing 
through  the  lymph  glands, 
and  when  poured  into  the 
blood  become  white  blood 
globules.  During  the  in- 
Fig.  89.  SmCMB  of  laiieoiia  iiwlHMie  of  tenrals  in  which  there  is 
the  iatestiae.  ehowioe  fiM  wifli  ew»-  ^„  digestion,  the  Ivmph 
tnl  iMted  daet  and  Uood  vessels.  .    ,      •     \u  -'  > 

»Ml«ithes.a&cetl.e.l»«fabMre,«-       «'   ^^^^   "*     ^^    "***" 
tiMjiai  »mji«  tinal  vessels,   as   in    other 


HOW    THE     ANIMAL     LIVES  237 

parts  of  the  body,  is  a  simple  straw-colored  liquid  consisting 
of  surplus  nutritive  matter  -which  has  not  been  required  by 
the  needs  of  the  part,  and  is  being  returned  to  the  blood. 
In  this  lymph  we  find  an  important  source  of  supply  of  the 
white  blood  globules,  which  are  being  constantly  used  up  ; 
and  thus  derangements  in  the  lymph  vessels  and  glands  injuri- 
ously affect  the  blood,  and  through  it  the  entire  animal  system. 
4096.  The  admirable  adaptation  of  means  to  end  is  trace- 
able in  the  successive  changes  of  these  food  products.  The 
nitrogenous  constituents  in  the  food,  which  are  not  fitted  for 
absorption,  are  transformed  into  the  peptones,  which  are  spe- 
cially adapted  for  rapid  absorption.  Then  the  peptones,  which 
are  not  fitted  for  nutrition,  but  are  really  poisonous,  are  changed 
in  the  liver,  so  as  to  render  them  harmless  and  fitted  for  the 
varied  uses  of  the  body,  or  for  elimination.  Other  food  princi- 
ples are  turned  into  sugar,  and  some  poisonous  fermentation 
products  are  rendered  harmless  through  the  action  of  the  liver. 
This  interdependence  of  different  functions  upon  each  other — 
mastication,  insalivation,  digestion,  absorption,  transformations 
in  the  liver,  the  formation  of  normal  blood  elements,  assimi- 
lation and  secretion — furnishes  an  indication  of  what  goes  on 
throughout  the  whole  animal  body,  the  perfection  of  one  process 
being  essential  to  that  of  others,  and  the  derangement  of  one 
causing  disorder  of  the  others.  The  nervous  system,  which  is 
concerned  in  carrying  on  all  functions,  from  those  of  simple 
nutrition  of  a  tissue  or  of  secretion  by  a  gland  up  to  such  mental 
processes  as  the  animal  is  endowed  with,  is  dependent  on  the 
blood  for  its  own  functional  activity.  Changes  in  the  blood 
entail  change  in  the  capacity  for  nen'ous  work  ;  so  that  disorder 
of  one  distant  organ,  acting  by  influencing  the  nervous  system, 
directly  through  the  nerves  or  indirectly  through  the  blood, 
may  bring  about  derangements  of  the  most  varied  kind  in  the 
different  organs  subject  to  nervous  influence.  The  great  func- 
tion of  the  lungs  is  the  elimination  of  carbon  dioxid  from  the 
blood  and  tissues  and  the  introduction  of  oxygen,  which,  being 
carried  into  all  parts  by  the  red  globules,  assists  in  nearly 
every  change  which  takes  place  in  any  organ.     But  if  the  lungs 


238  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

fail  to  fulfill  their  function  to  any  degree,  every  organ  and 
function  is  afEected.  Most  of  the  waste  nitrogenous  matter 
leaves  the  body  through  the  kidneys,  but  if  this  channel  of 
elimination  is  interfered  with,  the  effete  matters  are  retained,  and 
they  poison  and  derange  every  organ  from  the  brain  downward. 
Even  apparently  insignificant  organs  have  a  far-reaching  in- 
fluence. The  spleen  and  bone  marrow- cells  affect  the  develop- 
ment of  blood  globules.  A  small  gland  at  the  throat  (thyroid) 
affects  the  nervous  system,  and  a  still  smaller  one  at  the  base 
of    the  brain   (pituitary)    influences  the  growth  of    the  limbs. 

411a.  Kepeat  the  experiment  suggested  in  390a.  Make  lime 
water  by  placing  a  piece  of  quicklime  in  a  bottle  of  pure 
water,  shaking  and  setting  aside  to  settle.  Then  take  a  little 
of  the  clear  liquid  and  with  a  syringe  force  air  through 
it.  It  will  become  only  slightly  turbid.  Next  take  a  tube  and 
blow  through  this  water  for  a  short  time,  when  it  will  become 
white  and  opaque  by  the  formation  of  lime  carbonate,  owing 
to  the  union  of  carbon  dioxid  with  the  lime. 

413a.  The  lung  of  any  of  the  higher  animals  presents  an 
enormous  surface  to  the  'inspired  air.  To  illustrate  the  extra- 
ordinary extent  of  breathing  surface  formed  by  this  minute  di- 
vision of  the  lungs  into  microscopic  sacs,  it  may  be  stated  that, 
in  the  horse,  it    reaches   an  area   of  500  to  800  square  feet. 

414a.  The  heart  of  an  ox,  sheep,  or  other  animal  can  be 
obtained  at  the  slaughter  house  or  of  the  butcher.  Discover 
the  right  and  left  cavities, — a  ventricle  surmounted  by  an  auricle 
on  each  side, — the  valves  around  the  opening  leading  from  the 
auricle  to  the  ventricle,  and  the  cords  connecting  the  valves  with 
the  inner  side  of  the  ventricle. 

416a  When  blood  is  shed  in  killing  an  animal  or  otherwise, 
observe  how  the  surface  layer  gradually  changes  from  the  dark 
red  to  a  bright  crimson  as  it  takes  up  the  oxygen  from  the  air. 

418a.  In  the  conveyance  of  oxygen  in  the  blood  the  color- 
ing matter  of  the  red  globules  (haemoglobin)  is  the  principle 
bearer.  It  combines  with  oxygen  loosely,  and  gives  it  up  promptly 
at  the  demand  of  the  carbon.  The  bright  crimson  color  is  due 
to  the  union   of   much  oxygen  with  the  coloring  matter  of   the 


HOW     THE     ANIMAL     LIVES  239 

red  blood  globules,  while  the  dark  red  hue  is  caused  by  the 
comparative  absence  of  oxygen.  The  liquid  elements  of  the 
blood  (serum)  can  absorb  and  convey  but  little  oxygen.  In 
order  to  have  free  and  healthy  breathing,  therefore,  the  blood 
must  contain  abundance  of  red  globules,  and  these  must  be 
well  developed,  containing  a  large  amount  of  the  red  coloring 
matter.  Ill  health,  lack  of  sunshine,  and  various  diseases, 
which  cause  diminution  of  the  red  globules  or  of  their  coloring 
matter,  interfere  with  respiration  and  consequently  with  the 
healthy  nutrition   and  function  of  the  tissues  of  the  animal. 

426a.  Persons  who  desire  a  detailed  account  of  the  physiology 
of  domestic  animals,  may  consult  F.  Smith's  "Manual  of  Veteri- 
nary Physiology."  Advice  as  to  the  treatment  of  animals  is 
contained  in  Law  s  "  Farmer's  Veterinary  Adviser." 


THE   FEEDING  OF   THE  AVQIAL 


TTEsre 


1.  Sources  of  F^yA  of  Ammals 

427.  Broadly  speaMng,  an  aTiimal  must  feed 
iq>oii  either  fluimal  or  vegetable  sabstances,  and 
it  has  no  power  to  use  as  food  mineral  or  inor- 
ganic substances. 

428.  Any  snbstance  which  an  animal  may  nse 
as  food  is  called  a  fodder.  A  fodder  mnst  con- 
tain the  substances  that  are  needed  for  soste- 
z:"-  in  such  form  that  the  animal  can  nse 
~  .     .     ::.iLd   mnst  not  contain   anything    that  is 

s  or  poisonous  to  the  animal. 


2.  How  ike  Ammud   Uses  Food 

429.  The  plant,  by  reason  of  its  vital  force 
and  with  the  aid  of  the  energy  of  the  sun,  trans- 
forms sniii»-  s  of  matter  into  more  complex 
ones,  and  ii.  -  1  .'ing  locks  or  stores  up  a  part 
of  the  enerrv  irieived.     The  animal,  by  means 


THE      FEEDING     OF     THE      ANIMAL  241 

of  its  digestive  processes,  tears  down  these  sub- 
stances, setting  free  the  energy  and  transforming 
the  matter  into  forms  suitable  to  be  incorporated 
into  animal  tissue. 

430.  Before  the  matter  of  the  fodder  can  be 
used,  it  is  necessary  that  the  animal  expend  energy 
upon  it  during  the  processes  of  digestion  and  as- 
similation. The  profit  of  the  fodder  to  the  animal 
is  represented  by  the  difference  between  the 
amount  of  energy  originally  present  in  the  fodder 
and  the  amount  of  energy  it  is  necessary  for  the 
animal  to  expend  upon  it  in  order  to  make  it 
available.  Some  substances  require  so  great  an 
expenditure  of  energy  by  the  animal  to  digest  or 
partially  digest  them  that  they  are  useless  as 
fodders,  although  they  may  contain  the  proper 
compounds  in  measurably  proper  proportions. 

431.  Fodder  is  used  by  the  animal  (1)  as  fuel 
to  keep  up  the  bodily  heat,  without  which  the 
vital  processes  cannot  go  on;  (2)  to  repair  the 
wastes  of  the  various  tissues,  organs  and  fluids  of 
the  body;  (3)  to  form  new  tissues  or  organs,  or 
add  to  those  already  formed  (especially  in  young 
animals) ;  (4)  to  produce  young;  and  (5)  to  lay 
up  reserve  stores  in  the  form  of  fat  or  otherwise, 
to  secrete  various  products,  or  to  perform  muscu- 
lar labor  Many  of  these  reserves  or  products 
are  useful  to  man,  as  milk,  wool  and  eggs. 

432.  In    general,    if    the    amount    of   food   is 


242  THE     PRINCIPLES     OF     AGRICULTURE 

insufficient  it  will  be  used  for  the  first  four  pur- 
poses, approximately  in  the  order  named  :  and 
only  after  the  needs  of  the  animal  are  fully 
supplied  in  these  respects  will  food  be  used 
for  the  last  purpose.  The  food  used  for  the 
first  four  purposes  is  called  food  of  support  or 
food  of  maintenance  ;  that  used  for  the  last 
purpose   is   food   of   production. 

433.  Not  all  of  the  food  taken  into  the  body 
can  be  used  by  the  animal.  The  digestiye  fluids 
fail  to  act  upon  a  part  of  the  food,  and  this  passes 
out  through  the  intestines  as  undigested  solid 
excrement.  It  is  only  the  food  which  is  di- 
gested that  is  of  use  to  the  animal. 

434.  The  proportion  of  food  digested  yaries 
with  the  animal.  One  animal  may  digest  80  per 
cent  of  the  food  eaten  ;  another,  standing  by  its 
side,  equally  healthy  and  eciually  vigorous  and 
of    similar    age,  may   digest    less    than    40    per 

cent. 

435.  The  amount  digested  varies  with  the  food 

and  with  the  different  constituents  in  the  food. 
Some  foods  are  almost  wholly  digested :  of  others 
less  than  one-fourth  is  digested.  In  any  given 
fodder,  one  constituent  may  be  readily  and 
largely  digestible,  while  another  is  digested  only 
with  difficulty  and  in  a  small  amount.  In  general, 
of  the  food  eaten  only  from  one-half  to  two- 
thirds  is  digested. 


THE     FEEDING     OF     THE     ANIMAL  243 

3.   Composition  of  Fodders 
3a.   Classification 

436.  Fodders  are  made  up  of  a  large  number 
of  sulistanees,  all  of  which  are  of  more  or  less 
use  to  the  annual,  and  each  of  which,  to  some 
extent,  serves  a  definite  purpose  when  used  as 
food.  While  the  number  of  separate  compounds 
in  fodders  is  very  large,  they  fall  into  a  few  very 
distinct  groups  or  classes,  depending  upon  their 
composition  and  the  purposes  which  they  serve 
the  animals.  These  classes  are  (a)  water, 
(h)  ash,  (r)  protein,  (d)  carbohydrates,  including 
fiber,  (e)fat. 

Sb.    Water 

437.  Water  is  present  in  all  fodders  without 
exception,  but  the  proportion  is  very  variable. 
Some  roots  and  green  fresh  fodders  occasionally 
have  as  much  as  90  per  cent  of  water,  whereas, 
in  some  oi  the  kiln -dried  by-products  the  j)er- 
centage  of  water  may  fall  as  low  as  5  or  6  per 
cent.  Ordinary  air- dried  fodder,  as  the  grains, 
hay,  straw,  usually  contains  from  10  to  15  per 
cent  of  water. 

438.  The  water  in  the  fodder  to  a  certain 
extent  supplies  the  needs  of  the  animal  instead  ot 
water  which    is   drunk.      Animals    consuming    a 


244  THE     PKENCIPLES     OF     AGRICULTURE 

watery  food  will  need  to  drink  less  water ;  but 
no  food  contains  so  much  water  that  it  can  be 
used  by  the  animal  to  supply  its  needs  for 
both  water  and  solid  matters. 

439.  In  general,  water  adds  tenderness,  suc- 
culence and  palatability  to  fodders.  Green  fresh 
fodders  are  more  palatable  than  the  same  fodders 
di'ied  ;  and  the  palatability  of  hay  or  other  dry 
fodder  may  be  increased  by  soaking  in  water,  or 
by  steaming. 

3c.  Ash 

440.  Ash  is  the  small  residue  which  is  left 
when  any  animal  or  vegetable  matter  is  com- 
pletely burned.  It  is  mineral  matter  obtained  by 
the  plant  from  the  soil  (147,  192),  and  is  com- 
posed of  very  nearly  the  same  substances  in  both 
plants  and  animals.  Some  ash  is  found  in  all 
parts  of  all  plants  and  all  animals,  and  it  is 
necessary  to  those  parts.  Life  can  not  be  main- 
tained or  the  vital  processes  carried  on  without 
this  ash. 

441.  In  general,  the  proportion  of  ash  is 
small,  but  the  bones  of  animals  and  certain 
parts  of  the  plant,  as  the  bark,  contain  con- 
siderable amounts,  ^ith  scarce  an  exception, 
the  amount  of  ash  present  in  ordinary  fodders 
is  sufficient  for  the  needs  of  the  animal,  and, 
therefore,  it  need  not  be  taken  into  account  in 


THE     FEEDING      OF     THE      ANIMAL  245 

making  up  a  ration  or  deciding  upon  a  fodder: 
since  no  matter  what  is  fed,  it  is  almost  certain 
that  the  animal  will  find  in  it  an  abundant  sup- 
ply of  the  proper  mineral  elements,  with  the 
exception  of  common  salt. 

'StL    Albuminoids 

442.  The  protein,  or  proteids,  constitutes  a 
very  important  group  of  fodder  constituents. 
While  they  are  of  a  complex  and  varied  com- 
position, all  contain  nitrogen  as  a  distinctive 
constituent,  as  well  as  carbon,  oxygen  and 
hydrogen,  and  usually  sulfur  and  phosphorus. 
It  is  the  nitrogen  that  gives  to  the  members 
of   this   group   their  importance  as  food  (370). 

443.  Organic  aeti\dties  can  not  be  maintained 
without  nitrogen.  It  is  an  essential  constituent 
of  the  li\'ing  animal  or  vegetable  cell,  and  no 
new  growth  can  take  place  without  it  ;  conse- 
quently it  must  be  constantly  supplied  in  the 
food  of  both  plant  and  animal.  Nitrogen  is  not 
a  constituent  of  the  other  gi'oups  of  food  ele- 
ments, and,  therefore,  the  growth  of  the  animal 
depends  in  large  measure  on  the  supply  of  protein. 

444.  While  more  or  less  protein  is  found  in 
nearly  all  fodders,  its  proportion  is  very  va- 
riable, and  in  very  many  cases  is  less  than  is 
required  by  the  animal  to  sustain  life  or  to  make 
useful  growth.    Those  fodders  that  contain  large 


246  THE     PRINCIPLES     OF     AGRICULTURE 

amounts  of  protein  are  mainly  found  in  the  grains 
and  other  concentrated  foods  that  are  relatively 
high-priced.  Both  these  conditions  make  the 
problem  of  successful  feeding  largely  one  of  the 
sufficient  and  economical  supply  of  albuminoids. 
If  an  insufficient  amount  is  furnished,  the  animal 
suffers  in  growth  or  production:  if  more  than 
enough  is  supplied,  costly  waste  ensues. 

3e.   Carhohydru^e.-i 

445.  By  far  the  largest  part  of  the  dry  matter 
of  fodders  is  classed  with  the  carbohydi'ates,  the 
most  familiar  examples  of  which  are  sugars, 
starch,  gum  and  vegetable  fiber  (371).  These 
substances  contain  carbon,  oxygen,  hydrogen — the 
two  latter  in  the  proportions  in  which  they  are 
found   in  water.     They  contain   no   nitrogen. 

446.  By  union  with  oxygen  in  the  lungs  and 
blood,  the  carbohydrates  are  decomposed  into 
carbonic  acid  (carbon  dioxid)  and  water,  and 
heat  is  evolved  in  precisely  the  same  way  as 
under  ordinary  combustion  in  the  air.  They 
are  thus  the  main  source  of  heat  to  the  animal. 
They  are  also  a  source  of  muscular  energy,  and 
in  most  cases  an  important  source  of  fat  in  both 
tissue  and  product. 

447.  Of  the  carbohydrates,  fiber  is  much  less 
readily  acted  on  by  the  digestive  fluids,  and 
often  a  large  part  of  it  passes  through  the  animal 


THE     FEEDING     OF     THE     ANIMAL  247 

without  change.  For  this  reason  it  is  often  con- 
venient to  consider  it  in  a  class  by  itself.  So  far 
as  it  is  used  at  all,  it  serves  the  same  pui'pose  as 
the  other  carbohydrates. 

3/.  Fats 

448.  The  fats  (371(7)  of  fodder  are  used  by 
the  animal  for  much  the  same  pm'poses  as  the 
carbohydrates.  They  contain  only  carbon,  oxy- 
gen and  hydrogen,  but  proportionately  much 
less  oxygen  than  the  carbohydrates.  For  this 
reason  they  yield  much  more  energ}*  when  de- 
composed or  burned,  and  are,  therefore,  of 
much  more  value  to  the  animal  than  the  carbo- 
hydrates. 

449.  The  amount  of  energy  yielded  by  differ- 
ent fats  varies  somewhat,  but  in  general,  it  is 
about  two  and  one -fourth  times  as  much  as  that 
^•ielded  by  an  equal  weight  of  sugar  or  starch  ; 
and  in  reducing  fat  to  its  ''starch  equivalent"  (for 
purposes  of  comparison)  this  is  the  factor  com- 
monly employed.  In  ordinary  fodders  the  per- 
centage of  fat  is  not  large,  running  from  about 
3  to  about  8  per  cent  of  the  air- dry  substance. 

4.  Feeding 
4a.  Xutrifive  ratio 

450.  From  what  has  already  been  said,  it  will 
be  seen  that  the  protein,  carbohydrates  and  fata 


248  THE     PRINCIPLES     OF     AGRICULTURE 

are  the  constituents  of  the  fodder  that  are  of 
dh-ect  use  to  the  animal.  These  are  often  collec- 
tively sjioken  of  as  nutrients,  and  the  portion  of 
them  that  is  digestible  as  digestible  nutrients. 

451.  Since  the  I'jrotein  (or  albuminoids)  is 
necessary  to  growth  and  reproduction,  and  since 
the  carbohydrates  and  fats  are  mainly  used  to 
produce  heat  and  work  and  reserve  stores  of 
fat,  the  proper  relations  of  these  constituents 
to  one  another  in  various  fodders  and  rations 
constitute  an  important  part  of  the  science  and 
art  of  feeding.  A  ration  is  said  to  be  balanced 
when  these  substances  exist  in  the  proper  propor- 
tion to  one  another  for  the  purpose  intended. 

452.  It  has  been  found  convenient  to  express 
the  relation  between  the  protein  and  other  con- 
stituents in  the  form  of  a  ratio,  known  as  the 
nutritive  ratio.  The  nutritive  ratio  is  the  ratio  of 
the  digestible  protein  to  the  digestible  carbohy- 
drates plus  two  and  one -fourth  times  (449)  the 
digestible  fat,  expressed  in  terms  of  unity  or 
one  of  the  protein. 

453.  The  nutritive  ratio  is  found  by  adding  to 
the  digestible  carbohydrates  two  and  one -fourth 
times  the  digestible  fat,  and  dividing  by  the 
digestible  protein.  It  is  expressed  thus  :  Nutr. 
Eatio  1:  5.5.  It  means  that  in  some  certain  fod- 
der or  ration  there  is  for  each  pound  of  digest- 
ible protein  or  flesh -forming  nutrients,  five  and 


THE     FEEDING     OF     THE     AXIMAL  249 

one- half  pounds  of  digestible  heat  and  fat- 
forming  elements.  A  ratio  is  said  to  be  wide  or 
narrow  when  the  proportion  of  heat -forming 
nutrients  is  large  or  small  in  proportion  to  the 
protein.     Thus,  1:  12  is  wider  than  1:7. 

454.  A  certain  proportion  should  exist  between 
the  nitrogenous  and  non- nitrogenous  nutrients  of 
a  ration.  Animals  that  are  growing  rapidly,  that 
are  bearing  young,  and  that  are  producing  wool, 
milk  or  eggs,  require  a  more  nitrogenous  food 
than  animals  that  are  working,  or  fattening,  or 
living  without  gain  or  loss  of  weight.  For  the 
latter,  the  nutritive  ratio  may  be  as  wide  as  1:  12 
or  1:  14  ;  for  the  former,  the  nutritive  ratio  should 
be  as  narrow  as  1:5  or  1:6. 

455.  Formerly  it  was  supposed  that  slightly 
differing  nutritive  ratios  would  make  distinct 
differences  in  the  effectiveness  of  a  ration  or  the 
quality  of  the  product  ;  but  it  is  now  generally 
considered  that  the  limits  of  variation  in  the 
nutritive  ratio  may  be  rather  wide  without  mate- 
rially influencing  the  nutritive  effect  of  the 
ration.  Other  conditions  may  mask  the  effect 
due  to  differences  in  the  nutritive  ratio. 

456.  One  of  the  chief  reasons  for  taking  the 
nutritive  ratio  into  consideration  is  that  the  pro- 
tein may  be  economically  used.  Protein  should 
be  used  for  the  formation  of  nitrogenous  products 
in  the  animal.      It  may,  however,   be  used  as   a 


250  THE    PRINCIPLES     OF    AGRICULTUBE 

source  of  heat,  instead  of  the  cheaper  starch  or 
sugar.  This  may  occur  in  any  ration  when  the 
proportion  of  protein  is  in  excess  ;  but  there  is 
generally  a  too  small  proportion  of  protein. 

•457.  By  far  the  larger  number  of  natural 
fodders  are  deficient  in  protein,  and  a  chief  task 
of  the  feeder  is  to  furnish,  from  by-products  or 
otherwise,  a  sufficient  amount  of  albuminoids  in 
the  cheapest  form.  Usually  more  protein  can 
be  used  to  advantage  by  the  animal  than  is 
furnished  to  it. 

46.   Quaniity  of  food  required 

458.  The  quantity  of  food  that  an  animal  can 
profitably  or  economically  use  is  dependent  ujjon  a 
variety  of  circumstances  and  conditions.  In  the 
first  place,  a  certain  amount  must  go  to  the  sup- 
port of  the  body  and  the  vital  functions.  This  is 
known  as  the  food  of  maintenance  (432) ;  and 
a  ration  calculated  to  keep  an  animal  alive  and 
in  good  health  without  gain  or  loss  of  body 
weight    is   called  a  maintenance  ration. 

459.  The  amount  of  food  required  for  sup- 
port depends  upon  the  size  and  somewhat  upon 
the  individuality  of  the  animal.  Small  animals 
require  more  food  in  proportion  to  their  weight 
than  large  ones.  Average  animals  of  the  same 
class,  however,  are  usually  considered  to  requii'e 
food    in   proportion   to    their    body  weight.      In 


THE     FEEDING     OF     THE     ANIMAL  251 

general,  for  horses  and  cattle,  about  18  pounds 
per  day  of  dry  matter  per  1,000  pounds  live 
weight    is    required    for   maintenance. 

460.  It  is  from  the  food  eaten  in  addition  to 
that  required  for  maintenance  that  the  profit 
comes  to  the  feeder.  Hence,  if  an  animal  re- 
ceives no  more  than  enough  to  sustain  life,  it 
can  produce  no  profit  to  its  owner.  Much  less 
is  there  profit  if  an  animal  is  allowed  to  lose 
in  weight ;  for  common  experience  has  shown 
that  when  an  animal  is  once  allowed  to  suffer 
loss  in  weight,  the  loss  is  regained  only  at  an 
increased  expenditure  of  food  above  what  was 
originally  required    to   produce  it. 

461.  The  amount  of  food  that  an  animal  can 
use  profitably  over  and  above  that  required  for 
maintenance,  depends  upon  the  capacity  of  the 
animal  and  the  purpose  of  production.  Most 
animals  will  make  a  return  approximately  in 
proportion  to  the  food  consumed,  up  to  a  cer- 
tain amount.  Above  that  amount,  the  food 
simply  passes  through  the  animal  ;  or  the  di- 
gestive apparatus  becomes  disordered  and  the 
animal  refuses  to  eat.  However,  the  capacity 
of  different  animals  in  this  respect  varies  widely. 

462.  Assume  that  six  j^ounds  per  day  per 
1,000  pounds  live  weight  is  about  the  average 
amount  of  dry  matter  that  an  animal  can  profit- 
ably use  above  that  required  for  support.    It  will 


252  THE     PRINCIPLES     OF     AGRICULTURE 

be  found  that  many  animals  can  not  profitably  use 
more  than  three  or  four  pomids,  while  others  can 
use  from  ten  to  fifteen  pounds,  and  an  occasional 
animal  can  profitably  use  a  still  larger  amount. 

463.  The  amount  of  food  that  an  animal  can 
or  will  eat  must  not  be  confounded  with  the 
amount  of  food  that  an  animal  can  profitably 
use.  Many  animals  can  and  constantly  do  pass 
through  their  bodies  a  considerable  amount  of 
food  of  which  no  use  whatever  is  made,  and 
this,  too,  without  interfering  in  any  way  with  the 
general  health,  digestive  functions,  or  even  with 
the  appetite. 

4c.  Feeding  standards 

464.  Feeding  standards  show  the  amount  and 
proportions  of  the  various  nutrients  that  have 
been  found  by  experience  to  be  best  adapted 
to  the  various  purposes.     A  few  are  given  : 

For  Each  1,000  Pounds  Live  Weight  per  Day. 

Digestihle 
Dry  Digestible    carbohydrates      Xutritive 

matter  protein  andfat  ratio 

Oxen  (maintenance)  .  17.5  lbs.  0.7  lbs.         8.15  lbs.  1:  12 

Horses  at  work    .    .    .22.5    "  1.8    "  11.8      "  1:7 

Milk  cows 24.      "  2.5    "  12.9      "  1:5.4 

Growing  pigs  (young)  42.      "  7.5    "  30.        "  1:4 

465.  In  any  given  case,  these  or  any  stand- 
ards may  be  advantageously  varied  to  a  con- 
siderable extent.     The  standards  are  mere  guides. 


THE     FEEDIXG     OF     THE     ANIMAL  253 

The  skill  of  the  feeder  depends  upon  his  success 
m  finding  out  how  far  the  individual  require- 
ments of  his  animals  warrant  a  variation  in  the 
standard. 

4fZ.  Bulk  in  the  ration 

466.  Aside  from  the  amount  of  digestible 
nutrients  and  the  nutritive  ratio,  the  bulk  of 
the  ration  is  a  matter  of  considerable  impor- 
tance. It  has  already  been  noted  (433)  that 
considerable  portions  of  all  the  nutrients  are 
not  digested.  Consequently,  in  every  ration  there 
is  more  or  less  material  of  which  the  animal 
makes  no  use,  and  which  may  be  said  to  merely 
add  to  the  bulk  of  the  ration.  Water  and  fiber 
are,  above  all  other  things,  the  substances  which 
give  bulk  to  a  fodder  or  ration. 

467.  Fodders  which  contain  large  amounts 
of  either  or  both  of  these  substances  are  said  to 
be  coarse  or  bulky  ;  fodders  which  have  a  min- 
imum amount  are  said  to  be  concentrated.  If 
a  ration  is  too  bulky,  ■  the  animal  is  unable  to 
eat  enough  to  obtain  sufficient  nutrients.  On 
the  other  hand,  a  ration  may  be  so  concentrated 
that  the  proper  amount  of  digestible  nutrients 
do  not  sufficiently  distend  the  digestive  organs 
so  that  the  gastric  fluids  may  fully  act.  This  is 
particularly  the  case  with  ruminants  (382-384, 
367). 


254  THE     PRINCIPLES     OF     AGRICULTURE 

4:68.  When  the  ration  is  unduly  bulky  be- 
cause of  the  presence  of  large  amounts  of  fiber, 
it  is  often  so  unpalatable  as  not  to  be  readily 
eaten.  On  the  other  hand,  when  water  is  the 
bulky  element,  the  food  is  almost  always  very 
palatable,  but  the  excess  of  water  has  a  loosen- 
ing and  depleting  effect  upon  the  digestive  sys- 
tem. Under  ordinary  conditions  for  ruminants, 
about  two-thii'ds  of  the  dry  matter  should  be 
furnished  in  the  form  of  coarse  forage  and  one- 
third  in  concentrated  food.  For  horses  at  work, 
not  more  than  one-half  should  be  coarse  forage, 
while  swine  and  poultry  require  the  ration  to  be 
in  a  still  more  concentrated  form. 

4e.  Palatableness 

469.  It  is  found  to  be  profitable  to  provide, 
even  at  considerable  expense,  a  certain  amount 
of  fresh  gi-een  food  for  winter  feeding,  in  the 
form  of  roots  or  like  material,  as  a  tonic  to 
appetite  and  digestion.     Silage  is  now  popular. 

470.  The  palatability  of  a  fodder  or  ration, — 
that  is,  the  readiness  or  eagerness  with  which 
it  is  eaten, — is  a  matter  of  great  importance. 
The  nutritive  effect  of  a  ration  often  depends 
upon  this  factor  alone.  In  general,  animals 
will  make  a  better  return  from  a  ration  that 
is  palatable,  even  though  it  may  not  be  ideally 


THE     FEEDING     OP    THE    ANIMAL  255 

perfect  according  to  the  standard,  than  they 
will  from  a  perfectly  balanced  ration  that  they 
do  not  like.  In  many  cases  the  quality  of  pala- 
tability  is  inherent  with  the  fodder,  in  others 
it  is  due  to  the  individual  whim  of  the  animal. 
It  can  only  be  determined  for  each  fodder  and 
each  animal  by  actual  trial. 

4/.    Cooking  and  preparing  the  food 

471.  Most  domestic  animals  are  able  to  eat 
and  digest  ordinary  forage  and  grains  in  their 
natural  state.  But  almost  all  fodders  may  be 
prepared  in  various  ways  so  that  mastication 
and  digestion  are  facilitated  or  palatability  in- 
creased. Only  upon  one  point  is  there  general 
agreement — that  for  most  animals  it  is  better  that 
the  cereal  grains  be  ground  before  feeding.  As 
to  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  cutting 
or  shredding  coarse  fodder,  and  soaking,  steam- 
ing and  cooking  foods,  opinion  is  very  much 
divided. 

472.  There  is  probably  some  economy  in 
consumption  when  coarse  fodders  are  cut  or 
shredded.  Palatability  is  often  increased  by 
soaking,  steaming  or  cooking ;  but  cooking 
renders  albuminoids  less  digestible,  and  to  that 
extent  is  a  distinct  disadvantage. 

473.  A    certain    amount     of    variety    in     the 


256  THE     PRINCIPLES     OF     AGRICULTURE 

constituents  of  the  ration  is  appreciated  by 
all  animals.  If  the  ration  is  composed  of 
several  fodders,  these  may  be  mixed  in  a  uni- 
form mass  and  this  mixture  fed  continuously 
for  long  periods  of  time.  This  is  particularly 
true  of  cattle  and  swine. 

SUGGESTIOJSIS    ON  CHAPTER   XV 

437a.  By-products  are  secondary  products  which  result  from 
the  manufacture  of  a  given  product.  Thus,  buttermilk  and  skim- 
med milk  are  by-products  of  butter-making,  whey  of  cheese- 
making,  pomace  of  cider-making,  bran  of  flour-making.  Many 
important  by-products  used  in  feeding  animals  result  from  the 
manufacture  of  breakfast  cereals,  the  manufacture  of  glucose 
syrups,  and  the  processes  of  brewing  and  distilling. 

442a.  The  group  takes  its  name  from  albumin,  which  is  seen 
in  its  purest  and  most  common  form  in  the  white  of  egg. 
The  gluten  or  sticky  part  of  the  wheat  kernel,  the  casein  or 
cheesy  part  of  milk,  and  the  muscular  fibers  of  lean  meat,  are 
also  familiar  examples  of  albuminoids.  From  the  many  forms 
they  assume,  they  are  often  spoken  of  as  protein  compounds,  or 
proteids.    They  are  also  often  called  nitrogenous  substances  (370). 

443a.  The  albuminoids  are  necessary  to  all  the  processes  of 
growth  and  reproduction  ;  and  since  most  animal  products,  as 
wool,  flesh,  eggs  and  milk,  contain  large  amounts  of  nitrog- 
enous matter,  the  albuminoids  are  likewise  essential  to  pro- 
duction as  well  as  growth.  When  the  members  of  this  group 
are  decomposed  or  broken  down,  they  give  up  heat,  and,  there- 
fore, may  be  used  to  keep  the  animal  warm  (372).  It  is  not 
at  all  uncertain  that  they  are  not  concerned  in  the  forma- 
tion and  storing  up  of  fat  in  the  tissues  and  milk. 

445a.  The  word  carbohydrate  (written  also  carbhydrate) 
means  carbon-hydrate.  The  word  hydrate  signifies  a  substance 
in  which  water  combines  with  some  other  element  :  in  the  carbo- 
hydrates, this  other  element  is  carbon.     In  all  the  carbohydrates, 


THE  FEEDING  OF  THE  ANIMAL 


257 


the  oxygen  and  hydrogen  are  in  the  proportions  in  ■which  they 
occur  in  water. — two  atoms  of  hydrogen  to  one  of  oxygen  (H^O 
is  water.  1306).  The  carbo- 
hydrates are  sometimes  called 
amyloids,— that  is,  starch-like 
materials. 

453a.  The  determination 
of  the  nutritive  ratio  is  very 
simple.  For  example  :  clover 
hay  of  average  quality  con- 
tains say  7.4%  of  digestible 
protein,  11.7%  of  digestible 
fiber,  26.3%  of  digestible  car- 
bohydrates other  than  fiber, 
and  1.9%  of  digestible  fat. 
Then  2X  times  1.9  is  4.3  ; 
to  this  is  added  11.7  and  26.3, 
making  in  all  42.3,  or  the 
starch-equivalent  of  all  the 
heat-  and  fat-forming  nutri- 
ents. Then  42.3  divided  by 
7.4  equals  5.7.  The  nutritive 
ratio  of  clover  hay  is,  there- 
fore, 1:5.7. 

458o.   The  results  obtained 
from  any  food  depend  in  large 
measure     upon       the 
housing       and       care 
which  the  animal  re- 

Fi^'.  90. 

A  cheap  and 

efficient 

silo. 


258  THE      PRINCIPLES      OF     AGRICULTURE 

ceives.  Stock  should  have  warm,  airy,  light,  clean,  sweet  stables 
(see  Fig.  32,  p.  86);  and  in  cold  weather  the  drinking  water 
should  be  slightly  warmed.  Stock  should  not  be  turned  out  on 
cold  and  blustery  days,  and  a  covered  yard  (Fig.  30)  should  be 
provided.  To  endeavor  to  secure  good  results  in  feeding  ani- 
mals which  are  cold  and  uncomfortable  is  like  trying  to  heat  a 
house  with  the  windows  open. 

469a.  Our  domestic  animals  while  in  a  wild  state  depended 
for  existence  almost  wholly  upon  green  forage.  This  trait 
survives  in  the  fact  that  in  many  cases  animals  will  make  a 
larger  return  for  a  given  amount  of  nutrients  when  given  green 
and  fresh  food  than  they  will  for  the  same  nutrients  when  dry. 

4696.  Silage  (not  ensilage)  is  forage  preserved  in  a  green  and 
succulent  condition.  It  is  preserved  by  being  kept  in  a  tight 
receptacle,  from  which  air  and  germs  are  excluded  as  much  as 
possible.  This  receptacle  is  called  a  silo.  Maize  (corn-fodder) 
is  the  most  popular  silage  material.  It  is  cut  into  lengths  of 
an  inch  or  two  and  immediately  placed  in  the  silo,  being 
firmly  tramped  and  compacted,  and  the  mass  then  covered  with 
straw,  hay,  boards,  or  other  material.  Circular  silos  are  best 
because  the  material  settles  evenly  all  around.  Fig.  90  shows 
a  very  economical  silo  at  Cornell  University.  It  is  12  feet  in 
diameter  and  24  feet  high,  and  rests  on  a  cement  floor.  It  is 
made  of  lumber  24  feet  long,  6  inches  wide  and  2  inches  thick, 
the  edges  not  bevelled.  The  pieces  are  held  together  by  sec- 
tions of  woven  fence-wire,  drawn  together  by  means  of  screw 
clamps.  There  is  no  framework.  Silage  is  useful  as  a  part  ot 
the  daily  ration,  but  it  is  easy  to  feed  it  to  excess.  Forty  pounds 
a  day  is  usually  sufficient  for  a  cow  in  full  milk. 

473a.  Persons  who  desire  to  pursue  these  subjects  furthe'- 
should  consult  Henry's  "Feeds  and  Feeding,"  and  Armsby's 
"Manual  of  Cattle  Feeding;"  also  Jordan's  "Feeding  of  Animals." 


Chapter   XVI 
THE   MANAGEMENT    OF   STOCK 


/.  p.  ROBERTS 


1.    The  Breeding  of  Stock 

la.    What  is  meant  by  breeding 

474.  Animals  grow  old  and  die,  or  they  are 
slaughtered  for  food.  Other  animals  are  born 
and  take  their  places.  Not  only  is  a  new  ani- 
mal born,  but  every  pair  of  animals  is  able  to 
produce  more  than  two  :  that  is,  the  total  num- 
ber of  animals  increases.  This  birth  and  multi- 
plication is   known   as  propagation. 

475.  But  it  is  not  enough  that  new  animals 
and  more  of  them  shall  appear :  these  new 
animals  must  be  desirable.  They  must  have 
certain  attributes  or  characters  which  make 
them  valuable.  In  order  that  these  desirable 
qualities  shall  arise,  the  stockman  selects  cer- 
tain animals  to  propagate  the  race ;  and  this 
control  of  the  kind  of  offspring  which  shall 
appear  is   known  as  breeding. 

476.  Breeding    may    have    two    objects :    to 

(259) 


260  THE     PRINCIPLES     OF     AGRICULTURE 

maintain  or  reproduce  the  given  type  or  breed ; 
to  produce  a  new  type  or  breed.  One  may  have 
small  red  cows,  and  desire  to  produce  others  like 
them,  or  with  some  improvement  on  the  same 
lines  ;  or  he  may  wish  from  these  animals  to 
produce  large  red  cows.  In  the  former  case,  he 
maintains  his  tj^e  ;  in  the  latter,  he  produces  a 
new  type. 

477.  A  breed  is  a  general  race  or  type  which 
reproduces  itself  more  or  less  closely.  It  is 
analagous  to  a  variety  in  plants.  Among 
cattle,  there  are  such  breeds  as  Short- horns, 
Jerseys,  Devons,  Holsteins  ;  among  fowls,  such 
as  Bantams,  Plymouth  Rocks,  Wyandottes, 
Shanghais.  The  person  who  guides  and  con- 
trols the  propagation  of  animals  is  known  as 
a  breeder. 

1&.    The  mental  ideal 

478.  The  first  principle  in  breeding  is  to 
know  what  qualities  one  wants  to  secure.  The 
breeder  must  have  a  distinct  ideal  in  mind. 

479.  Many  ideals  are  impracticable.  In  order 
to  be  practicable  or  useful,  the  ideal  must  be 
governed  by  two  factors  :  the  person  must  know 
the  characteristics  of  the  class  of  animals  with 
which  he  is  working ;  he  must  know  which 
qualities   are  most   likely  to  be  carried   over  to 


THE    MANAGEMENT    OF     STOCK  261 

the  offspring,  or  be  perpetuated.     Both  of  these 
factors   are   determiued  by  experience. 

480.  The  ideal  type  of  animal  varies  with  the 
uses  to  which  the  animal  is  to  be  put  and  with 
the  breed.  The  points  of  merit  in  a  dairy  cow 
(one  which  is  raised  chiefly  for  the  production 
of  milk)  are  unlike  the  points  in  an  ideal  beef 
animal.  The  points  in  an  ideal  Short -horn  are 
unlike  those  in  an  ideal  Ayrshire. 

481.  Animals  are  judged  by  theu'  general 
form,  the  texture  of  hide  and  hair,  framework 
or  bony  structure,  their  motions,  and  dispositions, 
theii'  performance  and  their  products. 

Ic.    How  to  attain   the  ideal 

482.  Having  learned  what  the  ideal  animal 
should  be,  the  breeder  strives  to  secure  that  ideal 
by  breeding  only  from  those  animals  which  most 
nearly  approach  the  ideal. 

483.  Animals  vary  in  their  power  to  trans- 
mit their  own  features  to  their  offspring.  Some 
animals,  without  any  visible  cause,  possess  the 
power  of  transmitting  their  own  characteristics 
to  an  unusual  degree.  Such  animals  are  said 
to  be  prepotent.  Inferior  animals  may  be  pre- 
potent, as  well  as  superior  ones.  It  is  impor- 
tant, then,  to  discover  beforehand  if  an  animal 
is  prepotent,  or  is  what  stockmen  call  a  "good 


262  THE     PRINCIPLES     OF     AGRICULTURE 

breeder;"  although  prepotency  can   be  positively- 
known  only  by  the  character  of  the  offspring. 

484-.  The  following  are  more  or  less  certain 
indications  of  prepotency:  the  eyes  are  bright, 
wide  open,  alert,  fairly  wide  apart  and  somewhat 
protruding,  or  the  reverse  of  sunken.  The  hair 
is  fine  and  soft,  the  skin  neither  thick  and 
leathery  nor  too  thin  or  "papery,"  nor  of  flabby 
structure.  The  bones  are  of  moderate  size  and 
have  the  appearance  of  being  fine  grained  and 
strong,  as  indicated  by  head,  limbs,  feet  and 
horns.  Such  animals  are  usually  symmetrical, 
although  they  may  not  be  fat.  In  of  all  their 
movements  they  are  vigorous,  alert  and  powerful 
and,  above  all,  courageous. 

485.  Now  and  then  a  "sport"  appears, — an 
animal  which  has  some  new  or  strange  feature, 
something  that  we  have  rarely  or  never  seen 
before  in  that  breed  (as  a  hornless  or  muley 
animal  amongst  normally  horned  animals).  Such 
occasional  characters  are  usually  not  easily  per- 
petuated, though  sports  have  been  the  origin  of 
many  stable  types,  especially  among  plants.  Per- 
manent improvement  is  more  likely  to  be  secured 
by  slow,  small,  steady  augmentation,  not  by  leaps 
and  bounds. 

486.  The  longer  any  line  of  animals  is  bred 
to  a  single  ideal  or  standard,  the  more  uniform 
the    animals    become.     The    breed  or  the  familv 


THE     :^L\^'AGEMENT     OF     STOCK  263 

becomes  "fixed."  The  record  of  this  long  line 
of  breeding  is  known  as  the  pedigree.  The 
longer  the  pedigree,  the  greater  is  the  likeli- 
hood that  the  animal  will  reproduce  its  charac- 
ters; that  is,  characteristics  which  have  bejen 
long  present  are  more  potent  than  those  which 
are  recently  acquired.  Hence,  a  long  pedigree 
should  indicate  more  value  than  a  short  pedigree. 

487.  For  the  general  farmer,  it  is  unwise  to 
buy  a  herd  of  pure-blood  stock,  unless  the  object 
is  to  breed  pure-blood  stock  for  sale.  The  breed- 
ing of  pure-blood  animals  is  a  business  by  itself, 
and  few  persons  are  competent  to  succeed  in  it. 
But  every  farmer  can  greatly  improve  his  stock, 
if  he  starts  with  and  constantly  uses  a  good  pure- 
blood  male  mated  with  good  native  females. 
From  the  gi-ades  so  produced  improvement  will 
be  rapid  and  sure  if  the  poorest  are  constantly 
sold  and  only  the  best  bred  from. 

2.    Where  Stock-raising  Is  Advisable 

488.  Having  now  considered  some  of  the 
principles  involved  in  securing  good  stock,  we 
may  next  inquire  in  what  regions  and  under 
■what  conditions  it  can  be  raised  profitably. 
Live-stock  raising  is  particularly  advantageous 
on  the  cheap,  unoccupied  and  uncultivable  lands 
of  the  "West  and  South.     In  those  regions,  stock 


264  THE    PRINCIPLES     OF    AGRICULTURE 

must  depend  largely  or  entirely  on  the  natural 
forage,  which  is  sometimes  good  and  sometimes 
extremely  poor  and  meager.  It  may  require  ten 
to  twenty  acres  to  support  a  single  cow  or  steer 
for  a  year.  If  the  "range"  is  eaten  off  closely 
during  the  summer,  the  animals  perish  in  the 
winter.  In  the  dry  and  nearly  snowless  districts 
of  the  West,  animals  may  subsist  in  the  winter 
on  the  mature  dead  grasses.  Since  the  rainfall 
is  light,  these  matured  grasses,  or  natural  hay, 
retain  most  of  their  nutrient  qualities. 

489.  In  narrow,  sheltered  northern  valleys 
surrounded  by  grass -covered,  rolling  hillsides, 
where  the  cereals  cannot  be  raised  to  advantage, 
live-stock  finds  congenial  surroundings.  In  such 
regions,  for  many  years,  was  the  center  and 
home  of  the  dairy  industries.  Within  the  last 
twenty  years  the  areas  in  which  butter,  cheese 
and  milk  have  been  produced  in  large  quantities 
for  city  consumption  and  export  have  become 
greatly  enlarged  and  multiplied ;  and  many 
whole  farms,  formerly  used  for  the  production 
of  the  cereals,  especially  of  maize,  are  now  con- 
ducted as  dairy  farms. 

490.  On  high-priced  land  near  the  markets, 
comparatively  little  live-stock  will  be  kept,  since 
the  manures  necessary  to  keep  the  soil  fairly 
productive  and  filled  with  humus  can  be  easily 
brought    from    the    cities.      The    teams    which 


THE     MANAGEMENT     OF     STOCK  265 

transport  the  products  to  the  markets  often 
return  loaded  with  the  refuse  of  the  city  stables. 
There  is  little  opportunity  for  the  production  of 
live-stock  on  the  market -garden  farm.  Where 
intensive  agriculture  (Ilia)  is  carried  on,  a  few 
animals  to  consume  the  refuse,  in  addition  to 
the  ''work  stock,"  may  be  kept  to  advantage. 
Swine  are  often  a  useful  adjunct  to  market- 
garden  farms. 

491.  But  perhaps  the  place  above  all  others 
where  live-stock  finds  the  best  conditions,  and 
where  it  is  most  likely  to  be  improved  from 
generation  to  generation,  is  upon  the  rich,  level 
farms  which  are  adapted  to  many  kinds  of 
crops.  Lands  which  are  capable  of  producing 
cereals,  gi-asses,  fruits,  vegetables,  flowers  and 
animals  should  be  prized  highly.  On  such  lands 
is  offered  the  gi-eatest  opportunity  for  the  high- 
est agriculture.  Diversified  agriculture,  with  one 
or  two  somewhat  specialized  crops,  leads  to 
steady  and  certain  income,  gives  opportunity 
for  furnishing  continuous  employment  for  both 
men  and  teams,  and  in  all  ways  tends  to 
economy  of  time   and  effort  (35-4a). 

3.  How  Much  Stock  May  Be  Kept 

492.  Cheap  transportation,  refrigerator  cars, 
and  the  silo,  have   made  it  possible  to  produce 


266  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

and  send  dairy  products  to  market  from  dis- 
tricts far  removed  from  the  great  cities  and  the 
seaboard,  at  a  profit.  On  the  rich  prairies, 
wherever  maize  will  flourish,  one  thousand 
pounds  of  live  stock,  or  one  large  dairy  cow, 
may  be  carried  for  every  two  acres  of  fairly 
good  arable  land.  In  some  cases,  some  extra 
concentrated  foods  may  be  required,  if  the  ani- 
mals are  kept  up  to  their  full  capacity  for 
growth  and  production. 

493.  On  farms  of  the  East,  where  a  large 
percentage  of  the  land  must  be  devoted  to  per- 
manent pasture  because  it  is  steep  and  stony, 
one  animal  of  one  thousand  pounds  to  two  acres 
cannot  be  carried  unless  considerable  concen- 
trated food  is  purchased. 

494.  There  are  two  methods  respecting  the 
number  of  animals  to  be  kept  on  a  farm.  One 
method  requires  that  food  be  bought.  The  other 
method  is  to  keep  only  so  many  animals  as  can 
be  maintained  by  home  resources.  On  lands 
natural!}'  fertile,  and  on  those  which  have  been 
wisely  managed,  this  latter  practice  is  to  be 
commended.  It  may  be  said,  however,  that  if 
the  stockman  can  secure  increased  profits  by 
risking  something  for  extra  food,  he  should  take 
advantage  of  it ;  but  most  farmers  had  better 
not  assume  many  risks. 

495.  We   may  now  speak   of    the    practice   of 


THE     MANAGEMENT     OP     STOCK  267 

purchasing  most  of  the  grain  or  other  concen- 
trated food  which  is  required.  These  foods  are 
mostly  by-products  (437«),  such  as  bran,  oil- 
meal,  cotton -seed  meal,  and  the  gluten  meals. 
It  is  said  that  it  is  cheaper  to  purchase  con- 
centrated foods  than  to  produce  them  on  the 
farm,  and  much  stress  is  laid  on  the  resultant 
plant-food  or  manure  which  is  secm'ed  from 
feeding  these  products. 

496.  A  ton  of  wheat  bran  contains  the  fol- 
lowing amounts  of  potential  plant -food  in  every 
thousand  pounds  : 

26.7  lbs.  nitrogen 

28.9    "    phosphoric  acid 

16.1    "    potash 

This  would  seem  to  indicate  that  a  thousand 
pounds  of  bran  would  be  worth,  for  manurial 
purposes,  $5.57,  or  $11.14  per  ton — computing 
the  nitrogen  at  12  cents,  phosphoric  acid  at  6 
cents   and  the  potash   at  4  cents   per  pound. 

497.  If  the  bran  is  fed  to  milch  cows,  it  is 
estimated  that  not  less  than  50  per  cent  of  the 
plant -food  constituents  of  the  food  will  be  found 
in  the  manure.  If  this  be  so,  then  the  manure 
which  is  the  result  of  feeding  one  thousand 
pounds  of  bran  would  be  worth  $2.79,  or  from 
feeding  a  ton  of  bran,  $5.58.  If  the  bran  be 
fed  to  animals  that  neither  gain  nor  lose,  and 
are  not  producing  milk   or  other  products,  then 


268  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

nearly  all  of  the  manui'ial  constituents  of  the 
food  are  found  in  the  excrements. 

498.  This  practice  of  purchasing  food  would 
appear  to  be  wise  on  a  farm  poorly  supplied 
with  pi  ant -food.  It  may  be  assumed  that  the 
increase  in  gi'owth,  or  the  products  secm-ed  from 
the  animals  which  consume  these  purchased 
foods,  would  equal  or  exceed  the  cost  of  such 
foods.  If  so,  the  value  of  the  excrements  would 
be  clear  additional  profit. 

•499.  In  practice,  however,  it  is  found  that 
the  purchase  of  these  supplemental  foods  be- 
comes necessary  largely  because  a  wise  use  has 
not  been  made  of  the  land.  If  need  of  these 
purchased  foods  arises  because  but  a  half  crop 
is  secured  instead  of  a  full  one,  then  gi'eater 
attention  should  be  given  to  making  the  land 
more  productive.  In  many  cases,  the  purchased 
foods  are  requii-ed  because  the  production  of 
grasses  and  the  other  forage  plants  has  been 
neglected.  Full  crops  and  wisely  purchased 
concentrated  foods  lead  directly  to  the  im- 
provement of  animals  and  land,  and,  therefore, 
to  permanent  prosperity. 

500.  When  the  coarser  products  are  used 
for  food  and  bedding,  and  a  goodly  portion  of 
the  grains  are  fed  at  home,  it  is  possible,  with 
care,  to  return  to  the  fields  three -fourths  of  all 
the  plant -food  which  is  removed  from  the  fields 


THE     MANAGEMENT     OF     STOCK  269 

to  the  barns  in  the  crops.  The  ease  with  which 
a  farm  may  be  maintained  on  a  high  plane  of 
productiveness  when  animals  are  made  promi- 
nent, and  the  difficulty  of  maintaining  high 
productivity  when  they  are  wanting,  should 
emphasize  the  part  which  the  animal  plays  in 
securing  the  best  results. 

4.   The  Care  of  Stock 
4(/.  Housing 

501.  Every  effort  should  be  exerted  to  make 
the  animals  comfortable.  Otherwise,  they  cannot 
do  their  best.  Animals,  like  people,  are  most 
useful  when  they  are  happy.  Provide  them 
good  quarters.  As  to  the  style  and  kind  of 
barns,  it  matters  little  so  long  as  the  desired 
results  are  secured. 

502.  Animals  need  much  air.  A  single  cow 
requires  in  twenty-four  hours  3,125  cubic  feet ; 
that  is,  all  of  the  air  which  would  be  contained 
in  a  box- stall  about  18  feet  by  17%  feet  by  10 
feet,  if  she  has  a  full  supply.  As  a  matter  of 
practice,  however,  a  cow  is  allowed  about  400 
cubic  feet  of  air.  Twice  as  much  air  space 
should  be  provided  in  the  horse  stable  as  in  the 
cow  stable. 

503.  In  the  barn,  free  circulation  of  air  is 
restricted  :  therefore,  pro\ision  should  be  made 
for  ventilation.    Large  amounts  of  aii'  introduced 


270  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

at  few  points  create  dangerous  drafts.  Air 
should  be  taken  into  and  removed  from  the 
stable  in  many  small  streams.  If  the  stable  is 
over -ventilated,  it  may  become  too  cold.  If  at 
least  one  cubic  foot  of  air  space  is  allowed  in 
the  stable  for  each  pound  of  live  animal  kept 
in  it,  the  ah*  will  not  have  to  be  changed  so 
often  as  when  the  animals  are  so  crowded, — as 
is  often  the  case, — that  only  one -half  to  one- 
fourth  as  much  air  space  is  provided. 

50-4.  A  barn  with  a  wall  roughly  boarded, 
both  inside  and  outside,  and  the  space  filled  with 
straw,  furnishes  nearly  ideal  conditions,  since 
the  air  will  be  strained  gently  through  the 
straw.  This  ventilation  should  be  supplemented 
by  a  few  small,  easily  controlled  openings. 
Stables  should  not  be  kept  above  50  degrees 
nor  fall  below  32  degi-ees,  for  any  considerable 
length  of  time. 

505.  Abundant  provision  should  be  made  for 
the  ingress  of  light.  It  is  best-  if  the  light  is 
admitted  at  the  rear  of  the  animal,  especially 
for  horses.  Provision  should  also  be  made  for 
temporarily  storing  the  excrements,  both  to  keep 
the  stable  clean  and  to  prevent  loss  of  the  val- 
uable constituents  of  the  manures.  Xo  excre- 
ments should  be  thrown  out  of  the  windows  or 
doors  of  the  stable  into  the  open  weather,  where 
they  form  a  nuisance  and  are  wasted  (120,  120a). 


(5cK  271 


THE    MANAGEMENT     OP     ST 


46.    Water 

506.  All  nutriment  is  carried  into  the  system, 
and  through  it,  by  means  of  water.  Since 
water  is  the  universal  carrier,  it  should  ever 
be  present  in  the  animal  tissues  in  quantities 
sufficient  to  accomplish  the  desired  results.  Ani- 
mals should  have  water  at  least  twice  a  day. 

507.  Animals  fed  a  narrow  ration  (453)  re- 
quire more  water  than  those  which  are  fed  a 
wide  ration.  A  cow  in  milk  may  requii^e  from 
fifty  to  eighty  pounds  of  water  daily.  If  the  water 
is  freezing  cold,  she  will  not  drink  freel}^  and  the 
production  of  milk  will  be  reduced.  Moreover, 
the  water  must  be  raised  to  the  temperature  of 
the  body  by  the  heat  generated  in  the  animal. 
This  may  require  a  part  of  the  energy  of  the  food 
which  might  otherwise  have  been  turned  to  some 
useful  purpose.  If  water  at  a  temperature  of  about 
60°F.  is  provided  for  the  stock  in  cold  weather,  the 
animals  will  not  only  enjoy  it,  but  will  not  re- 
quire as  much  food  as  when  compelled  to  drink 
water  near  the  freezing  point.  In  large  herds, 
coal  may  well  be  substituted  for  meal  in  heating 
the  drinking  water. 

4c.  Food 

508.  So  many  varieties  of  acceptable  cattle 
foods   can  be   secured   cheaply  in  America,  that 


272  THE     PRINCIPLES     OF    AGRICULTURE 

full  opportunity  is  offered  for  selecting  those 
which  give  promise  of  producing  the  particular 
results  desu-ed  in  any  given  case.  Animals 
which  are  used  continuously  at  hard  work 
require  a  wide  or  carbonaceous  ration  to  sup- 
ply energy.  Young  animals  do  best  on  a  narrow 
or  nitrogenous  ration.  Milch  cows  do  best  on 
intermediate  rations.  Cold  stables  imply  a  wide 
ration  ;  warm  stables,  narrow  rations.  The  food 
of  young  herbivorous  auimals,  of  those  that 
work,  and  of  cows  in  milk,  may  be  made  up  of 
about  one  pound  of  grains  or  other  concentrated 
foods  to  three  pounds  of  roughage. 

509.  The  amount  of  the  ration  and  the  time 
of  feeding  should  be  governed  according  to  the 
character  and  habits  of  the  animal.  Horses 
should  be  fed  more  often  than  cattle  and 
sheep,  since  their  stomachs  are  relatively  small. 
Horses  are  inclined  to  eat  at  night.  Cattle, 
sheep  and  swine  seldom  eat  after  dark. 

510.  The  ration  for  any  one  meal  should  not 
l)e  so  liberal  as  to  injure  the  appetite  for  the 
one  that  follows.  Regularity  in  time  of  feeding, 
and  skill  in  presenting  the  food  in  an  appetizing 
form,  are  prime  factors  of  success. 

SCGGESTIOXS    OX   CHAPTER   XVI 

479a.  The  breeder  must  know  the  names  of  the  various 
parts  of  the  animal.     The  parts  of    a  dairy  eow  are  designated 


THE     MANAGEMENT     OF     STOCK 


z  I  :i 


in  Fig.  91,  which  represents  a  "typical  Holstein-Friesian  cow:" 
1,  head  ;  2,  forehead  ;  3,  eyes  ;  4,  face  ;  5,  muzzle  ;  6,  ear  ;  7, 
horn  ;  8,  neck  ;  9,  throat  ;  10,  shoulder  ;  11,  shoulder  tops,  or 
withers  ;  12,  chest  ;  13,  crops  ;  14,  chine  ;  15,  back  ;  16,  loin  ; 
17,  hip  or  hook  ;  18,  rump  ;  19,  thurl  or  pin-bone  ;  20,  quarter  ; 
21,  thigh  ;  22,  hock  ;    23,  leg  ;  24,  forearm  ;    25,  hoof  ;  26,  fore- 


is  17  [B         _,!* 


Fig.  91.     Diagram  to  show  the  parts  of  a  dairy  cow  to  which  distinctive 
names  have  been  given. 

ribs  ;  27,  back-ribs  ;  28,  flank  ;  29,  belly  ;  30,  fore-flank  ;  31, 
stifle  ;  32,  tail  ;  33,  switch  ;  34,  udder  ;  35,  setting  of  tail  ;  36, 
quarters  of  udder  ;  37,  teats.  The  dewlap  is  the  flap  of  the 
throat  below  9.  The  escutcheon  is  the  part  surrounding  the 
udder  behind,  on  which  the  hair  grows  upwards. 

480a.  Following  is  the  ideal  of  a  dairy  cow  (compare  Fig. 
92)  :  The  cow  should  have  a  small  head,  a  large  muzzle  and 
mouth,  a  clean-cut  nose  or  face,  that  is,  one  free  from  fleshy 
growth,  a  straight  or  dishing  forehead,  bright  prominent  eyes, 
and  a  thiu,  long  neck  and  moderate-sized  horns.  She  may  be 
from  one  to  two  inches  lower  at  the  shoulders  than  at  the  hips. 
Her  general  form,  when  looked  at  from  the  side,  should  be 
wedge-shape,  and  the  same  shape  should  be  apparent  when 
viewed  from  the  rear.  The  shoulders  may  be  thin,  lean  and 
bony  ;  the  back  rather  long  and  rugged  ;  the  loin  fairly  broad, 
but  not  too  broad,  or  the   animal  will  tend  to  put  on  beef.     The 


B 


274 


THE     PRINCIPLES     OF     AGRICULTURE* 


hip  should  be  thrown  well  ahead,  which  gives  a  loug,  powerful 
hind  quarter.  The  thighs,  of  necessity,  are  thin  ;  the  flank 
well  up  ;  the  hind  leg,  usually,  quite  crooked,  and  the  tail  long. 
If  the  tail  be  long,  it  is  an  indication  that  the  vertebrae  of  the 
back  bone  are  somewhat  loosely  united,  which  is  an  indication 
of  good  milking  qualities.  The  pony-built,  smooth-made,  short- 
bodied,  rotund  cow  is  seldom  a  good  milker.  The  teats  should 
be  sizeable  and  placed  wide  apart  ;  the  limbs  neither  too  small  nor 


Fig.  92.     An  ideal  dairy  cow. 


too  large.  The  udder  should  not  be  very  pendent  or  loose,  and 
should  extend  well  to  the  rear,  also  well  to  the  front,  and  should 
have  a  broad  and  firm  setting  on  the  abdomen.  The  animal  should 
have  a  rugged,  rather  lean,  but  not  a  delicate  appearance.  All 
animals,  except  those  kept  for  speed,  should  have  rather  short 
limbs,  as  this  indicates,  to  some  extent,  constitution  and  power. 
It  will  be  noticed  (Fig.  92)  that  the  milk  veins,  which  extend 
from  the  udder  forward  on  the  abdomen,  are  large  and  promi- 
nent. These  indicate  that  the  cow  is  a  great  milker  or,  in  other 
words,  that  an  ample  supply  of  blood  has  been  furnished  to  the 
udder  by  the  arteries,  and  hence  a  large  amount  of  blood  must 


THE     MANAGEMENT     OF     STOCK  275 

be  returned  through  the  veins.  In  time,  the  veins  enlarge  in 
order  to  make  room  for  the  return  of  the  blood  from  the  udder. 
In  some  of  the  better  milking  strains,  these  large  veins  are  in- 
herited, and  can  be  seen  and  felt  on  young  animals  which  have 
never  given  milk. 

480b.  Contrast  the  ideal  points  of  the  beef  animal.  This 
animal,  like  the  milch  animal,  should  have  a  small  head  and 
horns,  and  be  light  in  the  throat-latch.  If  the  neck,  legs  and 
tail  be  removed  from  the  beef  animal,  the  body  is  almost  a  per- 
fect parallelogram.  The  neck  is  short  and  very  heavj'  where 
it  is  set  onto  the  shoulder,  the  back  straight,  thighs  built  well 
out  at  the  rear,  and  thick.  The  body  of  the  animal  is  more 
rounded,  the  short  ribs  or  loin  is  broad,  the  flank  is  well 
down,  the  shoulders  are  heavy  and  well  covered  with  meat, 
the  floor  of  the  chest  broad,  which  places  the  front  legs  wide 
apart.  The  whole  structure  of  the  animal  indicates  slowness  of 
motion,  quietness,  and  a  disposition  to  lay  on  flesh  and  fat,  or 
in  other  words,  to  be  selfish.  No  milk  veins  appear,  the  tail 
is  shorter  than  the  milch  cow's,  and  the  receptacle  for  milk 
small.  As  a  rule,  the  beef  animal  has  a  softer  and  more  velvety 
touch  than  the  dairy  animal,  since  the  one  is  usually  fat  and  the 
other  lean.  A  strong,  low  brisket  (the  hanging  part  between  the 
fore  legs)  is  desired,  not  because  the  flesh  of  it  is  good,  for  it 
is  quite  inferior,  but  because  it  is  an  outward  indication  of  su- 
perior feeding  qualities.  It  will  be  noticed  that  in  the  dairy 
cow  the  brisket  is  prominent,  but  thin.  It  indicates  good  feed- 
ing qualities  :  that  is,  a  good  appetite  and  power  to  digest  and 
assimilate  food.  True,  it  seems  to  have  no  direct  connection 
with  the  production  of  milk,  but  animals  which  are  markedly 
deficient  in  brisket  and  thin  in  the  waist  usually  have  delicate 
constitutions  and  precarious  appetites. 

480c.  A  moderately  thick,  elastic  skin  and  soft,  velvety  hair 
are  much  desired,  not  only  in  cattle  but  in  horses.  A  thin  or 
papery  skin  denotes  lack  of  constitution.  A  thick,  inelastic  skin 
denotes  unresponsivenessin  the  production  of  either  milk  or  beef. 

480d.  With  these  ideals  for  cattle,  compare  some  of  the 
points  of  excellence  in  a  trotting  horse  :     The  front  legs    have 


276  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICIXTURE 

a  long,  low,  rhythmie  motion  when  the  animal  is  alert,  while  the 
hind  quarters  are  lowered  and  widened,  and  the  hind  legs,  with 
their  wide,  all-embracing  sweep,  show  how  and  where  the  great 
propelling  power  is  located. 

481a.  The  scoring  of  animals  is  a  matter  of  ideals.  The  person 
assumes  that  a  total  of  100  points  represents  the  perfect  animal. 
each  part  or  quality  being  represented  by  a  certain  figure. 
Any  animal  may  then  be  judged  (as  at  a  fair )  by  this  standard 
or  seore.  Definite  scores  have  been  adopted  by  various  breeders' 
assoeiations,  eoU^es,  etc.  For  illustration,  two  scores  are  now  given. 

4816.  Following  is  the  score  for  a  dairy  cow  used  by  the 
College  of  Agrieulture.  Cornell  University: 

GlCaiERAt.  A.WE.AUXSCK  : 

Weiakt,  estimated lbs.;   actual lbs. 

Fitrm,  wedge  shape  as  viewed  from  front,  side  and  top. .       S 
Qmaiitjf,  hair  fine,  soft ;    sUn   mellow,   loose,   medium 

thtclmess.  secretion  ydlow  ;  bone  clean 8 

Cmutilitfiffit,  Tjgoroas,  not  indined  to  be^ness 8 

Hkad  axd  Xece: 

Jfvzzle,  clean  cot :  month  laree  :  nostrils  laise 1 

Mifeg.  large,  brig^ 1 

face,  lean,  long :  qniet  expression 1 

FbrekemA.  broad,  sligfatly  dished 1 

Sisr*.  mediom  size  :  jeDow  inside,  fine  textnre 1 

SeA,  fine,  medium  Iraigth  ;  Omnt  dean  ;  li^t  dewlap. .  t 

FOKK  AXD  HdeD  QUAKTEBS  : 

Witiert,  lean,  thin 1 

8kimUerg,Ut^t,ohhQae 2 

Sips,  far  xfmrt  i  lerel  between  honlks 2 

Jbump,  long,  wide 2 

PSMrbomtM  or  tkmrU,  high,  wide  apart 1 

niiffA*.  thin,  long 2 

X<v«.  stiaight,  short :  shank  fine 1 

TkA,  long.  EUm  ;  fine  switch 1 

BODT: 

Cfteit,  deep,  low :  girthlarge S 

££ha,  broad,  weO  spmng.  long,  wide  apart;  large  stomach.  5 

Bmek,  lean,  straight,  chine  open 3 

Xmn.  broad,  level 2 

fluU;  moderately  low 1 

JFcrel.  large 1 


THE     MANAGEMENT    OF     STOCK  27? 

Milk-secreting  Organs  : 

rdder.  long,  attached  high  and  full  behind,  extending  far 

in  front  and  full ;    quarters  even 15 

Udder,  capacious,  flexilile,  with  loose,  pliable  skin  covered 

with  short,  fine  hair 13 

Teats,  large,  evenly  placed 4 

Milk  teius,  large,  tortuous,  large  milk  wells 6 

Escutcheon,  spreading  over   thighs,  extending   high   and 

wide  ;    large  thigh  ovals 2 

Total 100 

481c.    The  score  for  a  beef  steer  as  used  by  the  Department 
of  Agriculture,  University  of  Wisconsin,  is  the  following  : 

General  Appearance  : 

T^?^ffA^  estimated lbs.;    according  to  age..       6 

Form,  straight  top-line  and  under-Iine  ;  deep,  broad,  low, 

set  stylish 8 

Quality,  firm  handling  ;    hair  fine  ;    pliable  skin  ;    dense 

bone  ;    evenly  fleshed 8 

Temperament,  quiet 5 

Head  and  Neck  : 

J/uzz/e,  mouth  large  ;   lips  thin  ;    nostrils  large 

Eyes,  large,  clear,  placid 

Face,  short  ;   quiet  expression 

Forehead,  broad,  full 

Ears,  medium  size,  fine  texture 

Neck,  thick,  short  :   throat  clean 


Fore  Quarters : 

Shoulder  Fein,  full 3 

Shoulder,  covered  with  flesh,  compact  on  top  ;    snug 4 

Brisket,  advanced,  breast  wide 2 

Dewlap,  skin  not  too  loose  and  drooping 1 

Legs,  straight,  short  :   arm  full  :    shank  fine,  smooth 3 

Body  : 

Chest,  full.  deep,  wide  :    girth  large  ;   crops  full 8 

Rihs,  long,  arched,  thickly  fleshed 6 

Back,  broad,  straight 6 

Loin,  thick,  broad 5 

Flan k,  full,  even  with  under-line 4 


278  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

HlXD   QCARTZRS : 

Hips,  smoothly  covered  ;    distance  apart   iu    proportion 

with  other  parts 4 

Rump,  long,  even,  wide,  tail  head  smooth,  not  patchy 5 

Pin-bones,  not  prominent,  far  apart  3 

Thighs,  ftdl 3 

Twist,  deep,  plump 4 

Purse,  full,  indicating  fleshiness 2 

Legs,  straight,  short,  shank  fine,  smooth 3 

Total loO 


486a.  A  correct,  lon^  pedigree  is  also  evidence  that  no 
crosses  outside  of  the  breed  have  been  made  within  the  time 
covered  by  the  record.  Then  the  longer  the  pedigree,  the  longer 
the  time  which  has  elapsed  since  the  breed  was  formed.  Many 
breeds,  as  Shropshires,  Berkshires  and  the  like,  start  from  mi.\ed- 
blood  animals  more  or  less  remote.  The  term  "pure  breed" 
simply  means  that  a  breed  of  animals  has  been  bred  so  long 
within  the  variety  that  a  fair  degree  of  uniformity  in  all  lead- 
ing characteristics  has  been  secured,  and  power  acquired  to 
transmit  the  leading  qualities  with  a  fair  degree  of  certainty. 

487a.  If  the  farmer  has  a  dairy,  let  him  resolve  to  breed 
from  no  animal  which  gives  less  than  4,000  pounds  of  milk  a 
year.  Animals  which  give  less  than  this  amount  are  often 
kept  at  a  loss,  and  they  should  be  disposed  of  at  once.  Every 
dairyman  should  also  test  his  milk  for  richness,  by  means  of 
the  Babcock  test.  Read  Wing's  "Milk  and  Its  Products,"  for 
instruction  on  the  Babcock  milk  test,  and  other  matters  of 
dairying. 

491a.  There  is  a  marked  tendency  for  farmers  to  run  too 
much  to  one  thing,  following  the  lead  of  some  person  who  has 
been  successful  in  a  particular  line.  In  some  localities  in  the 
East,  especially  in  the  great  grape  and  hop  districts,  the  ill 
effects  of  specialized  agriculture  are  often  seen.  "When  grapes 
and  hops  bring  prices  which  barely  pay  for  picking  them, — and 
this  not  infrequently  occurs. — the  fanner  becomes  discouraged, 
neglects  his  plantations,  and  when  prices  rise  to  the  point  where 
profits  should    be  received,   the  yield    per   acre    falls  so    low  by 


THE     MANAGEMENT     OP     STOCK  279 

reason  of  the  neglect  that  no  financial  recovery  is  possible.  In 
these  districts  live  stock  should  play  an  important  part. 

491ft.  It  is  found  that  wherever  the  areas  of  special  crops 
are  restricted,  and  rotation  and  mixed  husbandry  are  not 
seriously  disturbed,  fair  profits  are  realized  every  year,  and  the 
average  yields  of  grapes  or  hops  per  acre  are  much  above  the 
average  of  the  large  plantations.  Specialization  is  seen  to  have 
a  marked,  deleterious  effect  on  the  youth  of  the  districts  where 
it  is  practiced  in  a  large  way,  and  often  on  the  productivity  of 
the  soil  as  well.  The  introduction  of  domestic  animals  in  con- 
siderable numbers  tends  to  change  all  this.  Moreover,  the  ele- 
vating effect  of  coming  into  immediate  contact  with  animal  life, 
especially  on  the  young,  should  be  understood  and  prized. 

500rt.  A  crop  of  50  bushels  of  maize  per  acre,  and  the 
accompanying  stalks,  contains  about  64  pounds  of  nitrogen,  24 
pounds  of  phosphoric  acid  and  36  pounds  of  potash.  If,  when 
fed  to  animals,  only  one-half  of  the  plant-food  removed  by  the 
crop  is  returned,  then  but  32  pounds  of  nitrogen,  12  pounds  of 
phosphoric  acid,  and  18  pounds  of  potash  will  be  lost  from  each 
acre.  When  clover  is  in  the  rotation,  it  will  restore  most  of 
this  lost  nitrogen.  The  plant  precedes  the  animal.  He  who 
has  mastered  the  art  of  producing  plants  successfully  has 
learned  more  than  half  of  agriculture. 

5006.  Animals  play  such  an  important  part  in  maintaining 
the  productivity  of  the  land  that  he  who  farms  without  giving 
them  a  prominent  place  should  be  able  to  furnish  good  reasons 
for  so  doing. 

510fl.  Remember  that  thoughtful  care,  solicitude,  love  for 
The  animal,  and  timely  attention  to  the  many  details,  play  an 
important  part  in  animal  industry.  That  which  is  gained  by 
superior  breeding,  food  and  comfortable  buildings  may  be 
partly  lost  if  kindness  is  wanting.  "Speak  to  the  animals  as 
you  should  to  a  lady,  kindly." 


GLOSSARY 

{y'umbers  refer  to  Paragraphs.) 

Esthetic.     Appealing  to  the  faculties  of  taste,  as  of  color,  music. 

Agriculture.     Farming.     1,  la. 

Albumin.     A  nitrogenous  organic  compound,  present  in  botti  plants  and 

animals.     370,  442a. 
Aliment.     Food. 

Alimentary  canal.     The  digestive  channel  or  tract.     377. 
Ameliorate.     To  improve. 
Amenable.     Open  to,  liable  to  :  a  loose  soil  is  amenable  to  the  action  of 

air,  but  a  very  hard  soil  is  not. 
Amendment.     A  substance  which  influences  the  texture  rather  than  the 

plant-food  of  the  soil.     58. 
Annual.     A  plant  which  lives  only  one  year.     Beans  and  pigweeds  are 

examples. 
Antiseptic.     A  substance  which  kills  germs  or  microbes.     284a,  387a. 
Available.     Capable  of  being  used  ;  usable.     436. 
Axil.     Angle  above  the  junction  of  a  leaf-stalk,  flower-stalk,  or  branch 

with  its  parent  stem. 
Biennial.     A  plant  which  lives  two  years.     It  usually  blooms  and  seeds 

the  second  year.     Mulleins  and  parsnips  are  examples. 
Botany.     Knowledge  and  science  of  plants.     16. 
Breaking   doicn.      Said    of   hard  soils  when   they  become    mellow  and 

crumbly. 
Budding.     A  kind  of  grafting,  in  which   the  cion  or  bud  is  very  short, 

and  inserted  under  the  bark  or  on  the  wood  of  the  stock  (not  into 

the  wood). 
By-product.     A  product  incidentally  resulting  from  the  manufacture  of 

something  else.     437a,  495. 
Callus.     The  healing  tissue  on  a  wound.     234. 
Capillary.     Hair-like.     Said   of   very  thin   or  fine   channels,  especially 

those  in  which  water  moves  by  the  force  of  capillary  attraction. 
Carbohydrate.      An    organic  or  carbon    compound,  in  which  hydrogen 

and  oxygen  occur  in  the    same   proportions  as  they  do   in  water. 

Sugar,  starch,  woody  fiber  are  carbohydrates.     197o. 

(281) 


282  GLOSSARY 

Carbon.  A  gas,  C,  existing  in  small  quantities  in  the  atmosphere  ; 
also  in  a  solid  form  in  charcoal  and  the  diamond. 

Carbon  dioxid.     A  gas,  CO2;  carbonic  acid  gas. 

Carnivorous.     Feeding  on  flesh.     174. 

Casein.  Milk  curd,  the  chief  albuminoid  of  milk.  It  is  the  main  con- 
stituent of  cheese.     370. 

Catch-crop.  A  crop  grown  between  plants  of  a  regular  crop,  in  the 
interval  of  time  between  regular  crops.     109. 

Cereal.  A  grain  belongring  to  the  grass  family,  as  wheat,  maize,  rice, 
oats,  barley,  rye. 

Chemistry.     That  science  which  treats  of  composition   of  matter.     18- 

Chlorophyll.     The  green  matter  in  plants.     198,  198a. 

Cion.  A  part  of  a  plant  inserted  in  a  plant,  with  the  intention  that  it 
shall  grow.     2.36. 

Climatology.  Knowledge  and  science  of  climate.  It  includes  the 
science  of  weather  (local  climatej  or  meteorology.     19. 

Coagulate.     To  curdle;  as  of  milk. 

Coldframe.  A  glass-covered  box  or  frame  which  is  heated  by  the 
sun.  and  in  which  plants  are  grown  or  kept. 

Coming  true.     Reproducing  the  variety.     215a,  29.7. 

Comminute.     To  break  up.  fine,  pulverize.     29a. 

Compost.     Rotted  organic  matter.     34a. 

Conservation.     Saving.     82. 

Cover-crop.  A  catch-crop  which  is  desigmed  to  cover  the  soil  in  fall, 
winter  and  early  spring.     109,  116. 

Cultivator.  An  implement  which  prepares  the  surface  of  the  ground 
by  turning  it  or  lifting  it.  The  spring-tooth  harrow  is  really  a 
cultivator 

Cutting.  A  part  of  a  plant  inserted  in  soil  or  other  medium  with  the 
intention  that  it  shall  grow  and  make  another  plant:  slip.     231. 

Dehorning.     Removing  the  horns  from  animals.     120<7. 

Dependent.  Depending  on  other  means  than  its  own,  as  on  the  con- 
ditions in  which  it  lives.     182. 

Denude.     To  strip,  to  make  bare,  to  wash  away.     266. 

Dormant.     Latent,  sleeping,  not  active. 

Drought.     A  very  dry  spell  or  season. 

Hcology.  The  science  which  treats  of  the  inter-relationships  of  ani- 
mals and  plants,  and  of  their  relations  to  their  environments. 
The  study  of  the  habits  and  modes  of  life  of  organisms.  The 
migrations  of  birds,  distribution  of  plants,  nesting  habits  of 
bumble-bees,  are  subjects  of  ecology.    Often  spelled  oecology.    16a. 


GLOSSARY  283 

Element.  A  substance  which  is  composed  of  nothing  else;  an  original 
form  of  matter.     127«. 

Emulsion.  A  more  or  less  permanent  and  diffusible  combination  of 
oils  or  fats  and  water.     39G,  896«. 

Energy.  Power  ;  force.  Every  moving,  changing  or  vibrating  body  or 
agent  expends  energy  or  force  ;  and  this  force  is  transferred  to 
some  other  body  or  form,  for  nothing  is  lost.  The  energy  of  sun- 
light is  expressed  in  heat,  light,  and  other  ways.  The  energy 
that  is  required  to  produce  the  food  is  expended  as  bodily  heat, 
muscular  or  nervous  energy,  and  in  other  ways. 

Entomology.     Science  of  insects. 

Environment.  The  surroundings  of  an  animal  or  plant, — the  conditions 
in  which  it  lives.  Comprises  climate,  soil,  moisture,  altitude, 
etc.     166. 

Erosion.     Wearing  away;  denudation. 

Evolution.  The  doctrine  that  the  present  kinds  of  plants  and  animals 
are  derived,  or  evolved,  from  other  previous  kinds. 

Excretion.  A  secretion  which  is  of  no  further  use  to  the  animal  or 
plant,  and  which  is  thrown  off  ;    as  sweat.     363a. 

Extraneous.     External  ;   from  the  outside  ;  foreign  to.     54,  59. 

Extrinsic.  Secondary,  external,  from  the  outside.  The  apple  has 
extrinsic  value, — that  is,  it  is  valuable  as  a  marketable  or  money- 
getting  article,  aside  from  its  value  as  nourishment.     See  intrinsic. 

Eye.     A  bud  ;  a  cutting  of  a  single  bud.     235. 

Farm-practice.  The  management  of  the  farm  ;  the  practical  side  of 
farming.  It  comprises  the  handling  of  land,  tools,  plants,  ani- 
mals.    11. 

Farmstead.     A  farm  home  or  establishment. 

Feeding  standard.  The  ideal  amount  and  quality  of  food  for  a  given 
purpose.     464. 

Fermentation.  The  process  by  means  of  which  starch,  sugar,  casein, 
and  other  organic  substances  are  changed  or  broken  down,  and 
new  combinations  made.  It  is  usually  attended  with  heat  and  the 
giving  off  of   gas. 

Fertility.     Ability  of  the  land  to  produce  plants.     105. 

Fiber.     Elongated  or  string-like  tissues. 

Fibrin.  An  insoluble  but  digestible  albuminoid.  It  is  present  in 
blood-clots. 

Flocculate.     To  make  granular  or  crumbly.     58a. 

Fodder.     Food  for  animals.     428. 

Forage.  Plants  which  are  fed  to  animals  in  their  uaturul  condition,  or 
when  merely  dried.    330. 


284  GLOSSARY 

Free  water.  SlaDding:  water,  or  that  moving  tmder  the  influence  of 
grraritation,  as  distinguished  from  that  held  by  capiUary  attrac- 
tion.    64,  65,  78. 

Funciion.  The  particular  or  appointed  action  of  any  organ  <w  part. 
The  function  of  the  eye  is  vision  ;  that  of  the  heart  is  distributing 
the  blood  ;  that  of  the  root  is  takins:  in  food.  What  an  organ  does. 

Fungicide.     A  substance  ■which  kUls  fungi.     296. 

Furrow.     The  trench  left  by  the  plow.     91a.  [91,  91a. 

Furrow-slice.     The  strip  of   earth  which  is   turned  over  by  the  plow. 

Gang-plow.  An  implement  comprising  two  or  more  indiTidual  plows. 
Figs.  64,  65. 

Geology.     The  science  of  the  formation  of  the  crust  of  the  earth.    30. 

Germ.     See  micro-organism. 

Glacier.     A  slowly  moving   field    or   mass    of   ice  ;    a   froaeai  streun. 

Glxind^.     Secreting  organs.     3636.  [39,  39a. 

Gluten.     The  soluble  nitrogenous  part  of  flour.     370. 

Glycogen.  A  starch,  or  starch-like  material,  formed  in  the  »»TiiTrni1  body, 
and  from  which  sugar  is  formed.     364,  364a. 

Grafting.     The  practice  of  inserting  a  cion  or  bud  in  a  plant.     236. 

Grazing.     Pasturing. 

Green-crops.  Crops  designed  to  be  plowed  under  for  the  purpose  of 
improving  the  soil.     74,  109. 

Hard-pan.     Hard,  retentive  subsoD.     94a. 

Harrow.  An  implement  which  pulverizes  the  surface  of  the  groond 
without  inverting  it  or  lifting  it. 

Heading-in.     Cutting  back  the  tips  or  ends  of  branches.    288. 

Heavy  soils.  Soils  which  are  hard,  dense,  lumpy,  or  those  whicli  are 
very  fertile.     Does  not  refer  to  weight. 

Herhii'orotis.     Feeding  on  plants.     174. 

Horticulture.  Arts  and  sciences  pertaining  to  cultivation  of  fraits,  flow- 
ers, vegetables,  and  ornamental  plants.  It  is  part  of  agrienltore.  9, 9c. 

Host.  An  animal  or  plant  on  which  a  parasite  lives.  292h.  A  plant  or 
animal  which  makes  it  possible  for  another  plant  or  animal  to  grow 
alongside  of  it.     312a. 

Hotbed.  A  glass-covered  box  or  frame  which  is  artifieiaDy  heated 
(usually  by  means  of  fermenting  manure),  and  in  whith  plants  are 
grown. 

Humus.      Vegetable   mold.      It  may  contain   the   remains  of  asimals. 

Husbandry.     Farming,     la.  J33,  33a. 

Hygroscopic.     Holding  moisture  as  a  film  on  the  surface.     C4,  C7. 

Inhibit.     To  prevent  or  cheek.     ISS. 


GLOSSARY  285 

Inorganic.  Matter  which  has  not  been  elaborated  into  other  compounds 
by  plants  or  animals.  All  minerals  are  inorganic  ;  also,  air  and 
water.     256. 

Insaliration.     Mixing  with  saliva. 

Insecticide.     A  substance  which  kills  insects.     295. 

Internode.     In  plants,  the  space  between  the  joints.     205. 

Inter-tillage.     Tillage  between  plants.     8.'S,  85a. 

Intrinsic.  Peculiar  to.  internal,  from  the  inside.  The  apple  has  in- 
trinsic value, — that  is,  it  is  valuable  of  itself,  to  eat,  wholly  aside 
from  the  money  it  brings.     See  extrinsic. 

Irrigation.  The  practice  of  artificially  supplying  plants  with  water, 
especially  on  a  large  scale.     63,  63a. 

Irritable.  In  plants,  responding  to  external  agents,  as  to  wind,  sun- 
shine, heat.     183,  208. 

Larva  (plural  larvcf).     The  worm-like  stage  of  insects. 

Layer.  A  part  of  a  plant  which  is  made  to  take  root  while  still  attached 
to  the  parent,  but  which  is  intended  to  be  severed  and  to  make  an 
independent  plant.     229. 

Leaching.     Passing  through,  and  going  off  in  drainage  waters. 

Leguminous.     Belonging  to  the  Leguminosae  or  pea  family.     110. 

Lichen.  A  low  form  of  plant-life,  allied  to  algae  and  fungi.  The 
plant  body  is  usually  grayish  or  dull-colored  and  dryish.  On  tree 
trunks  it  is  usually  called  "moss."    29a.  Fig.  3. 

Light  soils.  Soils  which  are  very  loose  and  open,  or  which  are  poor 
in  plant-food.     Does  not  refer  to  weight. 

Marking  out.  Making  lines  or  marks  on  the  land  to  facilitate  sowing 
or  planting.     103. 

Medium.  A  fundamental  or  underlying  substance:  soil  is  a  medium 
for  holding  water.  An  agent:  a  root  is  a  medium  for  transporting 
water.     49. 

Microbe.     See  micro-organism. 

Micro-organism.  A  microscopic  organism.  It  may  be  either  plant  or 
animal;  but  the  term  is  commonly  restricted  to  bacteria  or  mi- 
crobes or  germs,  which  are  now  classed  with  plants.     35a. 

Mineral  matter.     Earthy  matter, — iron,  potash,  lime,  phosphorus,  etc 

Moldboard.  The  curved  part  of  the  plow  which  inverts  the  furrow- 
slice.    91. 

Mulch.    A  cover  on  the  soil.     83. 

Xitrate.     A  compound  in  which  NO 3   is  combined  with  a  base. 

Sitrification.     The  changing  of  nitrogen  into  a  nitrate.     137. 

Nitrite.     A  compound  in  which  NO3  is  combined  with  a  base. 


286  GLOSSARY 

Nitrogen.  A  gas.  X.  comprising  approximately  four-flfths  of  the 
atmosphere. 

Xntrieni.     Food:  aliment. 

Nutrition.  The  process  of  promoting  and  sustaining  growth  and  work 
of  animal  and  plant. 

Nutritive  ratio.  The  proportion  between  the  proteids  and  other  con- 
stituents in  a  food.     452. 

Optimum  temperature.  The  best  temperature  for  the  performance  of 
a  certain   function.     201,  321. 

Organic.  Pertaining  to  organisms, — that  is,  to  animals  and  plants. 
Organic  matter  has  been  elaborated  or  compounded  of  inorganic 
materials,  and  exists  in  nature  only  as  it  is  made  by  animals  or 
plants.  Flesh,  wood,  starch,  protoplasm,  sugar,  are  examples. 
The  chemist  defines  organic  matter  as  that  which  contains  carbon 
in  combination  with  other  elements.     25,  256,  32. 

Ornithology.     Science  of  birds. 

Osmosis.     The  movement  of  liquiJs  through  membranes.     184,  185. 

Oxygen.     A  gas,  O,  comprising  about  one-fifth  of  the  atmosphere. 

Palatable.     Of  good  or  pleasant  taste.     376,470. 

Particles  of  soil.     The  ultimate  or  finest  divisions  of  soil. 

Pedigree.     A  recorded  genealogy.     486. 

Peptone.  A  diffusible  and  soluble  compound  formed  from  nitrogenous 
substances  by  the  action  of  digestive  liquids.     389,  390. 

Perennial.  A  plant  which  lives  three  or  more  years.  Rhubarb,  apple 
trees  and  Canada  thistles  are  examples.  [143. 

Phosphate.     A   substance   containing  or  composed   of   phosphoric   acid. 

Photosyntheiis.  Making  of  organic  matter  from  COj  and  water  in  pres- 
ence of  light.     198,  199. 

Physical.  Pertaining  to  the  body  or  structure  of  a  thing,  as  dis- 
tinguished from  its  life  or  its  spirit.  Pertaining  to  the  action  of 
inorganic  forces,  as  heat,  light,  electricity,  movement  of  water. 

Physiology.  The  science  of  life-process  or  of  functioning.  It  treats  of 
organs,  and  their  work  and  uses. 

Potential.  Possible  :  latent.  Said  of  powers  which  may  be  brought 
into  action,  but  which  are  now  dormant.     42o. 

Precipitate.     The  sediment  resulting  from  chemical  action.     290(7. 

Prepotent.  Said  of  animals  which  have  the  power  of  perpetuating  their 
own  characteristics  to  a  striking  degree.     483. 

Protoplasm.  A  very  complex  and  changeable  organic  nitrogenous  com- 
pound, present  in  all  living  things,  and  necessary  to  their  existence. 
It  is  the  living  matter  of  cells. 


GLOSSARY  287 

Proteid.     Albuminoid;  orgranic  nitrogeiiou.s  conipomid.   442,  442a,  450,  4r>l, 
Prxtning.       Removing     part    of    a    plant    for    the    betterment    of    the 

remainder.     278. 
Ptomaine.     A  product  of  decomposition  of  dead  tissue.     409a. 
Ptyalin,     The  ferment  in  saliva.     380. 
Puddling .     The  cementing  together  of  the  particles  of  soils,  rendering 

them  hard  and  stone-like.     81. 
Range.     A  pasture,  particularly  one  of  large  extent.     488. 
Ration.     The  material  fed  to  an  animal. 
Rennet.      The    digestive    principle    derived    from    the    fourth   or   true 

stomach  of  ruminants  ;  or  the  dried  stomach  itself.     392&. 
Retentive.     Holding,  retaining. 
Reverted.     Said  of  phosphates  which  are   in  the  process   of   becoming 

insoluble.     145. 
Root-cap.     The  tissue  covering  the  very  tip  of  the  growing  root.     206. 
Root  pasturage.     The  area  of  soil  particles  exposed  to  or  amenable  to 

root  action.     53a,  90. 
Rotation.     A  systematic  alternation  of  crops.     112,  305,  305a. 
Roughage.     Forage,  330;   piirtieularly  coarse  forage. 

Sanitation.       Looking    after  the   health,    especially  making  the  condi- 
tions such  that  disease  or  injury  is  prevented. 
Sap.     The  juice  or  liquid  contents  of  plants.     207a. 
Saturated.     Full  of  water,  so  that  it  cannot  hold  more. 
Scarify.     To  scratch  or  to  harrow  lightly. 
Secretion.     A  special  product  derived  from  the  blood  :  as  saliva,  gastric 

juice.     363a. 
Seed-bed.     The  earth  in  ■which  seeds  are  sown.     243a. 
Seedling.     A  plant  grown  from  seed,  and  not  changed  to  another  kind 

by  grafting  or  budding.     2416. 
Siliciotcs.     Sandy. 
Slip.    A  cutting. 

Soil.     That  part  of  the  surface  of  the  earth  in  which  plants  grow.     24. 
Soiling.     Feeding  green  fresh  turiige,  in  stable  or  field. 
Sport.     A  variety  or  form  which  appears  suddenly,  or  is  very  unlike  the 

type.    485. 
Stock.     The  plant  into  which  a  cion  is  set.     236.     The  parentage  of  any 

group  or  line  of  animals  or  plants.     The  animal  tenants  of  a  farm  ; 

live-stock. 
Stoma,  stomate.     A  breathing-pore.     188,  188a. 
Subsoil.     That   part   of    the    soil   which    lies   below  the  few   inches   of 

ameliorated    and    productive    surface    soil.      It    is    usually   harder, 

lighter  colored,  and  poorer  in  plant-food  than  the  surface  soil. 


288  GLOSSAEY 

Subsoiling.     Breaking  up  the  subsoil.     97. 

Subsurface.     The  lower  part  of  the  surface  soil, — just  above  the  sub- 
soil.    250a. 
Superanuated.     Past  its  usefulness. 
Superphosphate.      Sometimes  used  to   designate   available  phosphates, 

and  sometimes  to  designate  materials  ■which  contain  phosphate  but 

no  potash  or  nitrogen.     143a. 
Supersaturated.     More  than  saturated,  so  that  the  water  drains  away. 
Supplementary .     Secondary  ;  used  in  addition  to  something  else. 
Su-ine.     Hogs,  pigs. 
Tap-root.     A  root  which  runs  straight  downwards,   with  no  very  large 

branches.    Figs.  33,  79. 
Texture.    Of  soils,  the  size  of  the  ultimate  particles. 
Tillage.    Stirring  the  soil.    8i,  84a. 

Toxin.    A  poisonous  production  of  decomposition.    409a. 
Training.    Placing  or  guiding  the  branches  of  a  plant.     278. 
Transpiration.    Passins  off  of  water  from  plants.    187. 
Trimming.     Removing   part  of  a  plant   to  improve   the  looks  or  man- 

ageableness  of  the  remainder.     278. 
Turhid.     Muddy,  cloudy. 
Cnder-drainage.     Drainage  from  below.     The  water  is  carried  through 

the  soil,  not  carried  off  on  the  surface.     57,  68. 
Urea.     A  waste  nitrogenous  compound  which  is  cast  out  through  the 

kidneys. 
Variation.     Modification  or  change  in  an  animal  or  plant.     The  coming 

in  of  new  forms  or  types.     Departure  from  the  normal  type. 
Viable.     Having  life;  capable  of  living  or  growing.     216. 
Vital.     Pertaining  to  life  or  living  things  :    vital  heat  is  the   heat  of 

an  animal  or  plant,  as  distinguished  from  the  heat  of  the  sun  or 

of  a  fire. 
Weed.    A  plant  which  is  not  wanted. 

Watersprout.     A  strong  and  usually  soft  shoot  arising  from  an  adven- 
titious or  dormant   bud, — outside   the  regular  place  and   order  of 

shoots.     286. 
Water-table.     That  part  of  the  soil  marked   by  the  upper  limit  of  the 

free  or  standing  water.     57,  57a. 
Zoology.     Knowledge  and  science  of  animals.     17. 


SUGGESTIONS  TO  READING  -  CLUBS 
AND  TO  TEACHERS 

This  book  has  found  a  place  in  reading- en-cles. 
Tiie  following  suggestions  on  this  use  of  the  text 
were  made  by  request  of  the  reading- circles  of 
one  state,  and  they  are  reproduced  here  for  the 
benefit  of  others  who  may  similarly  employ  the 
book. 

In  the  production  of  its  wealth,  agriculture 
operates  in  three  great  fields, — with  the  soil,  the 
plant,  and  the  animal.  Although  aided  at  every 
point  by  a  knowledge  of  other  subjects,  its  final 
success  rests  on  these  bases,  and  these  are  the 
fields  to  which  the  Principles  of  Agriculture 
gives  most  attention. 

Agriculture  is  often  said  to  be  the  most  fun- 
damental and  most  useful  of  occupations,  since 
it  feeds  the  world.  The  province  of  a  text -book 
of  agriculture  is  to  deal  with  the  original  pro- 
duction of  agricultural  wealth  rather  than  with 
its  manufacture,  transportation  or  sale. 

The  subject  of  agriculture  is  being  considered 
very  generally  by  schools.  This  book  is  intended 
to  supply  the  demand  for  a  broad  knowledge 
of    the    subject,    both   general    and    specific.     It 

S  (289) 


L'90  THE     PRINCIPLES     OF     AGRICULTURE 

regards  farming  as  a  business,  to  which  science 
may  be  made  to  contribute  a  large  measure  of 
success.  It  treats  the  subject  from  the  side  of 
production,  since  it  is  not  practicable  to  confuse 
this  brief  ti-eatment  with  a  discussion  of  social 
rural  questions. 

The  general  plan  of  the  book  is  to  state  fun- 
damental principles  in  terse  language  without 
very  much  explanation.  In  order  to  cover  so 
much  ground,  it  is  necessaiy  to  make  the  text 
very  brief.  It  is  considered  that  the  book  should 
not  run  beyond  three  hundi-ed  pages,  else  it 
would  be  so  large  as  to  interfere  with  its  gen- 
eral usefulness.  The  bare  statement  of  princi- 
ples is  likely  to  be  dry  and  uninteresting,  how- 
ever, and  therefore  some  incidental  and  explana- 
tory remarks  are  placed  in  small  type  at  the 
end  of  each  chapter.  Principles  themselves  never 
need  pictures  for  illustration;  but  the  applica- 
tions of  these  principles  are  often  made  plain  by 
the  use  of  engravings.  Therefore  the  engravings 
are  placed  in  the  explanatory  text  rather  than 
in  the  preliminary  statements. 

The  whole  book  is  itself  a  skeleton  or  outline 
of  the  subject.  It  is  expected  that  the  reader 
will  fill  it  in  as  he  goes  along,  by  discussion  and 
by  reading  other  books,  bulletins  and  agi'icultural 
papers.  Some  useful  references  will  be  found  iu 
the  explanatory  matter. 


KEVIEW     OF    THE     BOOK  291 

Spend  at  least  one  meeting  on  the  Table  of 
Contents  for  the  purpose  of  developing  a  general 
point  of  view  on  the  whole  subject  of  agriculture. 
This  book  is  made  for  adults  or  for  those  who 
are  old  enough  to  grasp  a  general  view  of  the 
subjects  included  in  agriculture.  It  is  well  to 
have  all  these  subjects  in  mind  at  the  outset,  so 
that  the  i*elative  importance  of  each  may  be 
known  and  understood. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  introduction  is  con- 
cerned with  a  general  statement  of  what  agri- 
culture is.  It  has  three  co-ordinate  divisions,  as 
may  be  seen  by  the  analysis  on  page  ix.  The 
first  division  attempts  to  define  agriculture,  the 
second  to  discuss  the  personal  attributes  on 
which  successful  agriculture  depends,  and  the 
third  defines  the  field  of  its  endeavor.  Under 
section  1  are  to  be  found  a  definition  of  agri- 
culture, paragraphs  1,  2,  la,  2a;  what  agricul- 
ture contributes  to  the  world,  3,  3«;  what  agri- 
culture is,  4,  4a,  4?;;  definitions  of  agriculture, 
5-9,  8a,  9a.  In  section  2,  it  is  explained  how 
successful  farming  depends  on  the  executive 
ability  of  the  farmer,  in  paragraphs  10-12;  how 
it  depends  on  a  knowledge  of  science,  13-20; 
how  complicated  the  business  of  agriculture  is, 
21,  21a,  216.  In  section  3,  there  is  an  outline 
of  the  things  with  which  agriculture  deals,  in 
paragi-aphs  22,  22a,  22b. 


292  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

Followiiii?  are  some  questions  that  might 
be  asked  on  this  introduction  in  order  to  bring 
out  the  various  points  involved.  These  outlines 
and  questions  may  suggest  how  all  the  chapters 
in  the  book  may  be  handled  with  some  degree 
of  satisfaction: 

I.  What  is  agriculture?  Is  it  the  same  as  farming?  As 
husbandry?  What  are  crops?  What  is  stock?  What  are  direct 
and  indirect  products  of  the  land? 

2.  Is  marketing  a  part  of  agriculture?  Define  primary  and 
secondary  products.     Contrast  agriculture  and  manufacture. 

3.  What  does  agriculture  contribute  to  the  world?  Is  agri- 
culture the  most  important  of  all  arts? 

4.  What  is  an  ideal  husbandry?  What  is  mixed  husbandry 
and  what  specialty  husbandry?  Which  most  completely  maintains 
itself? 

5.  Define  animal  industry,  horticulture,  forestry.  What  re- 
lation do  these  bear  to  agiiculture?  How  is  forestry  popularly 
misunderstood? 

6.  Is  the  farmer  a  business  man?  Why  is  executive  ability 
important?  What  is  meant  by  personality  and  how  important  is 
it  to  the  farmer?  Can  executive  ability  be  gained  wholly  from 
books? 

7.  What  do  you  understand  by  the  term  farm -practice?  What 
is  the  value  of  one's  own  experience? 

8.  What  are  staple  and  special  products?  How  are  prices 
made  for  these  two  classes  of  products?  Which  class  is  the  more 
important  in  the  agriculture  of  your  region? 

9.  Name  two  reasons  why  a  knowledge  of  natural  science  is 
helpful  to  the  farmer. 

10.  Discuss  the  relation  of  physics  to  agriculture.  Of  me- 
chanics. Of  botany.  Of  zoology.  Of  chemistry.  Of  climatology. 
Of  geology.     Explain  what  you  mean  by  each  of  these  terms. 

II.  Give  some  illustration  of  how  complicated  the  business  of 
agriculture  is. 


REVIEW     OF     THE     BOOK  293 

12.  Explain  the  three  great  subjects  with  which  agriculture 
deals. 

13.  Is  agriculture  a  science  or  an  art! 

It  will  be  noticed,  that  the  body  of  the  book 
is  divided  into  three  co-ordinate  parts:  the  soil, 
the  plant,  the  animal.  These  represent  the  three 
great  fundamentals  on  which  the  successful  prac- 
tice of  agriculture  depends.  A  complete  treatise 
on  agriculture  would  include  a  division  that 
would  have  to  do  with  the  general  economic 
principles  that  underlie  the  business,  and  another 
on  the  social  relations;  but  the  insertion  of  this 
discussion  would  carry  the  present  volume  quite 
beyond  its  limits  of  usefulness  as  an  elementary 
text- book. 

PART   I.     THE   SOIL 

The  soil  is  considered  in  several  aspects.  It 
is  important  to  state  at  the  outset  that  the  pri- 
mary consideration  is  not  the  plant- food  alone 
in  the  soil,  but  the  physical  characteristics  as 
well.  In  the  older  books  it  was  customary  to 
place  most  of  the  stress  on  the  chemical  con- 
tent of  the  soil.  This  was  because  agi-icultural 
chemistry  was  the  first  of  the  natural  sciences 
to  make  great  contributions  to  the  advancement 
of  agricultural  knowledge.  It  is  now  under- 
stood that  the  physical  constitution  of  the  soil 
is   as  important  as   its   chemical   constitution;    it 


294  THE    PRINCIPLES     OF    AGRICULTURE 

may  be  even  more  important,  since  plant-food 
can  be  added  if  the  soil  has  the  proper  physical 
make-up. 

The  soil  is  considered  in  six  general  phases: 
(1)  the  contents  of  the  soil,  as  to  what  it  is  and 
what  it  contains;  (2)  the  structure  of  the  soil; 
(3)  the  moisture  in  the  soil;  (-4)  the  tillage  or 
amelioration  of  the  soil;  (5)  the  enrichment  of 
the  soil  by  means  of  farm  resources;  (6)  the 
enrichment  of  the  soil  by  means  of  commercial 
or  concentrated  materials. 


Chajiter  1 

At  the  outset,  it  is  necessary  to  get  a  broad 
\dew  of  the  way  in  which  soils  have  come  to 
be,  and  ivJiat  the  content  of  the  soil  is.  As  soon 
the  farmer  develops  a  rational  point  of  view  on 
this  subject,  the  fields  and  hills  and  swamps 
will  have  a  new  meaning  to  him. 

What  are  the  sources  from  which  all  life  and  wealth  are  de- 
rived? Which  of  these  sources  are  beyond  the  control  of  man? 
What  is  soil?  What  is  the  meaning  of  the  word  soil  as  contrasted 
with  land? 

Of  what  two  kinds  of  elements  is  the  soil  composed  (|2fl,  2?*)? 
What  is  the  physical  basis  of  the  soil?  What  is  meant  by  organic 
and  inorganic  {25a)?  What  does  the  soil  contain  besides  these 
two  classes  of  materials  (25)?  The  pupils  should  be  asked  to 
demonstrate  the  presence  of  inorganic  matter  in  any  soil  (25c). 
What  is  meant  by  weathering?  How  has  the  soil  been  formed  by 
means  of  weathering  (26)  ?     What  are  the  agencies  by  means  of 


REVIEW     OF     THE     BOOK  295 

which  weathering  proceeds?  Does  weathering  act  on  surfaces  that 
are  in  general  level  as  well  as  on  those  that  are  inclined?  Pupils 
should  bring  in  a  stone  or  brick  or  some  other  piece  of  mineral 
material  that  shows  the  effect  of  weathering.  Why  are  pebbles 
rounded?  What  has  become  of  the  particles  that  have  disappeared 
from  them?  Why  may  weathering  proceed  less  slowly  on  level 
areas  than  on  steep  hills?  Why  do  mountains  and  hills  tend  to 
become  rounded?  Why  are  some  mountain  peaks  sharp  and 
others  rounded?  After  weathering  has  proceeded,  how  are  the 
detached  particles  distributed? 

How  do  plants  become  agents  in  the  formation  of  soil?  Where 
do  lichens  grow?  How  do  roots  act  in  the  making  of  soil?  How 
do  animals  contribute  to  the  making  of  soils?  What  is  understood 
by  chemical  action  (30)?  Let  the  teacher  or  pupil  read  some  of 
the  extracts  from  Darwin's  book  on  "Vegetable  Mold,"  explaining 
how  it  is  that  the  earth-worm  contributes  to  the  formation  of  soil. 
Are  there  any  soils  in  which  organic  matter  predominates;  if  so, 
where  are  they  formed,  and  how?  What  is  humus?  How  does  it 
modify  the  texture  and  color  of  soils?  What  is  the  value  of  humus 
(33)?  How  may  the  farmer  secure  humus  for  his  land?  How  im- 
portant do  you  consider  humus  to  be  in  the  farming  of  your  neigh- 
borhood? What  is  a  miero-oganism?  How  do  micro-organisms  benefit 
soils  or  contribute  to  the  growth  of  plants?  Do  you  understand 
that  the  soil  is  a  scene  of  life  as  well  a  collection  of  materials? 

How  is  soil  transported  and  laid  down?  How  may  stones  be 
a  source  of  benefit  to  land?  What  are  the  chief  agencies  by  means 
of  which  soils  have  been  transported?  What  soils  partake  most 
closely  of  the  nature  of  the  bed  rock  on  which  they  lie?  Explain 
how  a  stream  becomes  a  transporter  of  soil.  What  is  muddy 
water?  Let  the  pupil  illustrate  what  there  is  in  muddy  water. 
What  are  glaciers?  What  has  been  their  effect  on  the  soil  on  a 
large  part  of  northeastern  North  America?  Determine  whether 
the  soils  of  your  region  have  been  modified  by  the  action  of 
glaciers.  What  influence  has  the  wind  in  transporting  soils? 
Illustrate  from  the  sand  storms  of  the  plains  and  deserts.  Is  there 
dust  in  the  atmosphere?  If  so,  what  is  it  and  how  may  it  be 
detected? 


296  THE     PRESXIPLES     OF     AGRICULTURE 

Why  is  soil  useful  to  plant  life?  How  much  plant-food  mav  an 
acre  of  land  contain?  What  is  arailable  plant-food?  What  is 
potential  plant-food?  Is  all  of  the  plant-food  in  common  soils 
available?  How  does  nature  restore  or  maintain  the  fertility  of 
soils?  How  do  man's  operations  differ  from  Nature's  in  this 
regard?  Are  all  plant-food  materials  equally  useful  to  all  plants? 
What  effect  has  deep-rooting  on  the  soil,  and  on  the  amount  of 
plant-food  that  the  plant  obtains?  Why  are  fertilizers  useful? 
What  is  the  reason  for  their  application? 

Let  the  circle  or  pupils  read  paragraph  45  in  concert. 

Chapter  2 

In  this  chapter  we  discuss  the  texture  and 
structure  of  the  soil.  We  shall  find  that  the 
condition  of  the  soil  is  as  important  as  its  com- 
position. Farmers  have  always  known  this,  but 
it  is  only  recently  that  we  have  foimd  out  the 
underlying  reasons  why.  The  subject  of  "soil 
physics"  has  now  come  to  be  of  first  importance. 

What  are  the  two  general  offices  of  soil  so  far  as  the  growing 
of  plants  is  eoueemed?  Maya  soil  that  is  rich  in  all  the  plant- 
foods  still  be  unadapted  to  the  growing  of  crops?  Why  cannot 
crops  grow  on  rock ?  Why  not  on  very  hard  clay?  What  is  meant 
by  the  "texture"  of  the  soil?  By  the  "structure"?  What  is  the 
"physical  condition"  of  the  soil?  In  what  language  does  the 
farmer  express  a  good  physical  condition?  What  words  does  he 
use  to  express  a  poor  physical  condition? 

Name  the  reasons  why  good  structure  is  important  (52). 
Where  do  the  roots  feed?  What  relation  has  the  size  of  soil  par- 
ticles to  the  amount  of  available  plant-food?  Illnstrate  this  by 
breaking  up  a  cube  of  sugar  or  a  lump  of  chalk.  Mathematically 
this  could  be  best  illustrated  by  cutting  up  a  cube  of  wai.  In 
what  wav.  then,  mar  the  fining  of  soil  be  said  to  increase  its  pro- 


REVIEW     OF     THE     BOOK  297 

ductivityT  What  was  Jethro  TuU's  theory  of  the  value  of  the 
fining  of  the  soil  by  means  of  tillage  (53c)  ?  How  important  was 
Tail's  work,  and  why? 

In  what  general  way  may  the  structure  of  the  soil  be  improved? 
What  is  meant  by  making  the  land  "  mellow  "  ?  What  kind  of  lands 
are  mostly  improved  by  being  made  mellow?  What  kind  of  lands 
are  improved  by  being  made  compact  or  retentive?  Name  the 
three  ways  in  which  the  size  of  the  soil  particles  may  be  modified. 
What  are  the  general  uses  of  under-drainage?  May  under-drain- 
ing improve  dry  lands?  What  is  the  water-table?  How  is  it 
modified  by  under-draining?  What  is  an  amendment?  How  does 
it  improve  or  modify  the  character  of  the  soil?  What  effect  may 
lime  have  when  added  to  the  soil  aside  from  directly  furnishing 
plant- food?     Name  materials  from  which  humus  may  be  derived. 

What  are  the  values  of  stable  manures?  Does  their  value  lie 
alone  in  the  amount  of  plant-food  that  they  contain?  Illustrate 
the  value  of  good  soil  texture  by  the  practice  of  the  florist. 

Let  the  class  read  aloud  and  in  concert  paragraph  60, 


Chapter  3 

It  is  important  that  the  pupil  get  a  firm  grasp 
ou  the  structure  of  this  chapter,  concerning  the 
moisture  in  the  soil.  Notice  that  it  is  divided 
into  four  co-ordinate  parts: 

(1)  Why  moisture  is  important. 

(2)  How  the  water  is  held  in  the  soil. 

(3)  How  the  moisture -holding  capacity  of  the 
soil  may  be  increased. 

(4)  The  saving  of  the  soil  moisture. 

Since  crops  oftener  fail  for  lack  of  moisture 
than  for  lack  of  plant-food,  it  is  very  important 
that  this  chapter  be  given   careful  consideration. 


298  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

Why  is  soil  moisture  important  in  agricultural  practice?  Hott 
do  plants  use  water?  How  may  the  loss  of  water  from  the  plant 
be  shown?  What  is  irrigation?  Under  what  conditions  is  irriga- 
tion admissible  (63fl)?  In  what  part  of  the  country  is  it  a  gen- 
eral practice,  and  in  what  part  a  special  practice? 

In  what  forms  may  water  be  held  in  the  soil?  Explain  each  of 
these  three  methods  (65,  66,  67).  Make  an  experiment  to  show 
the  capillary  power  of  the  soil.  What  is  meant  by  the  term  "film 
moisture?"  In  what  condition  is  the  water  held  in  very  wet  soils? 
When  lands  are  in  proper  condition  for  the  growing  of  crops,  is 
the  soil  wet  or  is  it  mcist?  Illustrate  film  moisture  by  dipping  a 
marble  or  a  stone  in  water.  Illustrate  capillarity  by  applying 
one  corner  of  a  lump  of  sugar  to  water.  Illustrate  the  transfer  of 
water  from  particle  to  particle  by  placing  several  lumps  of  sugar 
together  and  applying  water  to  one  of  them.  "VNliere  is  the  free 
water  of  the  soil?  What  is  meant  by  a  "leachy"  soil?  In  what 
soils  and  under  what  conditions  does  water  run  off  the  surface? 
Does  this  wash  of  water  from  the  surface  do  any  harm  aside  from 
the  loss  of  the  water  itself? 

What  is  meant  by  the  term  "rainfall?"  How  may  the  soil  be 
made  to  hold  the  rainfall?  How  may  surface  washing  be  pre- 
vented? How  do  soils  vary  in  their  capacity  to  hold  water? 
Make  an  experiment  to  illustrate  the  capacity  of  the  different 
soils  to  hold  moisture  (72c).  How  does  the  humus  content  of  the 
soil  affect  its  moisture-holding  capacity?  How  important  is 
humus  in  the  agriculture  of  your  region?  Is  there  sufficient  rain- 
fall in  this  region  to  carry  the  crops  through  the  season  without 
resorting  to  irrigation? 

How  is  the  humus  in  the  soil  depleted?  State  one  reason  why 
newly  broken  or  newly  cleared  lands  give  the  best  crops.  How 
may  the  humus  be  gradually  increased?  Is  it  possible  to  put  too 
much  humus  in  the  land?  The  pupil  should  be  instructed  in  the 
effect  of  humus  in  different  kinds  of  soils.  Soils  that  are  already 
rich  in  humus  may  be  injured  rather  than  benefited  by  the  appli- 
cation of  more,  whereas  those  that  are  lacking  in  humus  or  are 
very  hard,  or  very  loose  and  sandy,  maybe  greatly  benefited.  In 
many  of  the  loess  soils  of  the  middle  West  the  addition  of  much 


KE^^E^v    of   the    book  299 

humus  may  be  a  decided  disadvantage.  Call  attentiou  to  tlie  fact 
that  in  very  windy  regions  the  soil  may  be  made  so  loose  and 
open  and  fine  as  to  be  exposed  to  much  damage  by  winds.  In 
new  countries  humus  may  be  more  abundant  than  in  old  lands: 
why?  Are  the  lands  in  your  neighborhood  in  need  of  humus? 
Illustrate  when  green-crops  should  be  plowed  under  for  the  pur- 
pose of  giving  the  best  results.  What  is  the  danger  of  plowing 
them  under  too  late  in  the  season  (74(7^? 

Explain  what  drainage  is.  What  is  surface  drainage  and 
under-drainage?  How  may  surface  drains  be  constructed  so  as 
to  interfere  least  with  agricultural  operations?  What  effect  has 
under-drainage  on  the  soil?  What  effect  does  a  warm  shower  in 
spring  have  on  land  that  is  perfectly  drained?  What  effeet  does 
a  cool  summer  shower  have?  Explain  some  of  the  practices  of 
tile  draining,  as  to  depth  of  drain,  distance  apart  of  the  different 
drains  (~6a,  76h).  What  relation  does  under-drainage  have  to 
tap-rooted  plants  (TSo)?     What  is  meant  by  the  "soil  reservoir?" 

How  does  tillage  enable  the  soil  to  hold  moisture?  How  does 
increasing  the  capillarity  increase  the  moisture-holding  capacity? 
What  is  the  general  direction  of  the  movement  of  moisture  by 
means  of  capillary  attraction?  May  soil  be  made  too  fine?  What 
is  meant  by  "puddling"  of  soils? 

What  is  meant  by  the  "conservation  of  moisture?"  How  does 
moisture  escape  from  the  land?  What  is  meant  by  the  "surface 
mulch"  or  the  "soil-mulch?"  About  how  much  water  is  required 
to  produce  a  pound  of  dry  matter  (8l?>)?  How  does  tillage  save 
the  moisture? 

Explain  (1)  the  general  direction  of  movement  of  soil  water 
in  the  growing  season;  (2)  how  the  moisture-holding  capacity  of 
the  soil  may  be  increased;  (3)  how  surface  evaporation  may  be 
lessened. 

Chapter  4 

The  tillage  of  the  soil  may  iiow  be  con- 
sidered, for  we  have  learned  how  important 
the   physical    condition   of   the    soil   is,  and  also 


300  THE     PRINCIPLES     OF     AGRICULTURE 

how  necessary  the  moisture  is  and  how  it  may 
be  caught  and  saved.  In  common  speech,  the 
word  cultivation  is  used  for  the  stirring  of  the 
soil;  but  it  is  better  to  use  the  word  tillage, 
since  this  is  a  specific  technical  word  with  no 
other  meaning. 

The  present  chapter  has  three  co-ordinate 
parts:  (1)  what  tillage  is;  (2)  what  tillage  does; 
(3)  how  tillage  is  performed. 

Explain  what  you  mean  by  the  word  tillage.  Why  is  tillage 
performed?  Distinguish  the  two  kinds  of  tillage  (85).  Under 
what  conditions  are  these  kinds  practiced?  "What  is  meant  by 
deep  and  shallow  tillage?     By  surface  tillage? 

Note  that  tillage  improves  the  land  in  three  general  ways. 
(Read  the  first  clause  in  the  paragraphs  87,  88,  ^9.)  How  does 
tillage  improve  the  physical  condition  of  the  soil?  What  in- 
fluence has  it  in  saving  moisture?  What  influence  has  it  on  the 
chemical  actions  taking  place  in  the  soil?  Of  what  importance  is 
air  to  the  soil  (89a  ?  In  what  sense  is  it  true  that  "tillage  is 
manure  "? 

Note  that  there  are  three  general  ways  of  performing  tillage 
with  respect  to  the  kinds  of  tools  that  are  used.  What  are  they 
(§3a,  3b,  3e)?  Give  seven  reasons  why  we  plow.  Explain  how 
plowing  pulverizes  the  soil;  the  relation  it  has  to  green-manur- 
ing; how  it  increases  the  depth  of  the  soil;  what  relation  it  has 
to  hard-pan  or  subsoil;  how  it  modifies  the  temperature  and 
moisture  of  the  soil;  what  relation  it  has  to  weathering.  Explain 
what  subsoiling  is  and  what  it  does.  Define  the  words  furrow 
and  furrow-slice  Ola).  Describe  what  might  be  considered  to 
be  an  ideal  general-purpose  plow. 

Name  the  important  surface-working  tools.  Give  five  im- 
portant influences  that  surface-working  has  on  the  soil.  What  is 
meant  by  the  "earth-mulch?"'  What  is  it  for?  How  deep  should 
it  be?  How  is  it  made?  How  may  it  be  destroyed?  How  is  it 
repaired?     How  often  should  it  be  repaired?     If  the  earth-mulch 


REVIEW     OF     THE     BOOK  301 

itself  is  very  dry,  may  it  still  be  of  use?  At  what  time  of  the 
year  is  eartti -mulch  most  useful?  What  relation  has  surface 
tillage  to  weeds?     Why  do  we  till? 

Name  tools  that  have  a  compacting  influence  on  soils.  Name 
some  important  uses  of  the  compacting  of  the  soil.  What  is  the 
benefit  of  rolling  the  land?  What  are  the  disadvantages?  What 
relation  has  the  rolling  to  germination  of  seeds?  What  relation 
to  soil  moisture?  Does  the  rolling  of  the  land  require  much 
judgment?    Why? 

Chapters  5  and  6 

We  now  consider  the  enriching  of  the  soil. 
We  have  found  that  the  soil  is  made  to  be  more 
productive  by  thorough  preparation  and  by  sub- 
sequent tillage.  The  plants  are  enabled  to  lay 
hold  of  the  stores  of  plant-food,  and  many 
chemical  activities  are  set  up  that  result  in 
rendering  plant -food  more  available.  The  plant 
is  given  a  comfortable  and  congenial  place  in 
which  to  grow.  It  thrives.  We  have  found 
that  the  physical  structure  or  condition  of  the 
soil  is  of  primary  importance.  When  we  have 
secured  the  best  physical  condition  and  have 
done  our  best  with  tillage,  we  may  then  think 
of  adding  extraneous  materials  to  the  soil  for 
the  purpose  of  enriching  it.  That  is,  we  manure 
or  fertilize  the  land.  Whether  this  fertilizing 
pays  or  not,  depends  wholly  on  conditions.  The 
addition  of  mere  plant- food  is  rarely  profitable 
unless  the  land  is  first  in  condition  for  the  very 
best  growing  of  the  plant. 


302  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

Manures  are  of  two  general  characters;  those 
that  improve  the  texture  of  the  soil,  and  those 
that  add  plant-food.  Barn  manures  usually  per- 
form both  offices,  and  this  is  one  reason  why 
they  give  excellent  results. 

As  a  matter  of  farm -practice,  we  may  divide 
all  fertilizers  or  manurial  substances  in  two  great 
classes:  those  that  are  produced  on  the  farm, 
and  those  that  are  bought  from  the  market. 
The  best  agriculture  is  that  which  aims  to  pro- 
duce a  good  part  of  the  necessary  fertilizing 
materials  on  the  farm  itself.  These  materials 
are  by-products  (see  definition  in  glossary). 

In  Chapter  V  we  discuss  three  general  cate- 
gories: (1)  what  these  farm  manures  are,  (2) 
the  enriching  of  soil  by  means  of  crops  that  are 
plowed  under,  (3)  direct  application  of  farm 
manures  to  the  land. 

The  following  questions  will  tend  to  bring  out 
the  various  points  in  the  chapter: 

What  is  the  real  fertility  of  the  land?  Has  it  to  do  alone  with 
plant-food?  What  is  the  first  step  toward  increasing  the  produc- 
tiveness of  any  soil?  What  are  the  means  by  which  this  step  may 
be  taken?  What  is  humus  (review  paragraph  33)?  How  is  humus 
secured? 

What  are  green-manures?  How  much  of  the  weight  of  a 
clover  crop  may  be  left  in  the  ground  (108rt)?  Name  the  three 
classes  of  gi'een-manure  crops,  and  explain  them.  How  may 
green-manuring  crops  be  classified,  with  reference  to  their  nitro- 
gen-gathering power?  Name  some  of  the  nitrogen-gatherers. 
To  what  family  of  plants  do   they  belong?    Name  some  of   the 


REVIEW     OF     THE     BOOK  303 

nitrogen-consumers,  or  those  that  do  not  add  nitrogen  to  the  soil. 
Do  they  belong  to  any  one  group  or  family  of  plants?  Name  the 
three  great  staple  green-manure  crops  of  the  nitrogen-gathering 
class  (111).  What  is  meant  by  intensive  farming  (Ilia  j  ?  What 
by  extensive  farming  (1116)  ? 

What  is  the  ideal  method  of  securing  the  green-manuring 
crop  in  general  agriculture  (112)?  Can  a  regular  rotation  be 
practiced  in  most  kinds  of  intensive  farming?  Why  is  land  bene- 
fited by  being  ''rested"  in  clover  or  some  other  crop?  Explain 
how  land  may  be  benefited  sometimes  even  by  ''resting"  in 
weeds.  What  are  the  two  values  of  green-manure  crops  (114)? 
Is  it  true  that  green -manures  may  be  valuable  even  when  more 
plant-food  is  not  needed?  Apply  this  to  fruit-growing  crops. 
How  may  a  system  of  green-manure  cropping  be  inaugurated  on 
hard  and  poor  lands?  Where  are  cover-crops  most  useful,  and 
why?  How  early  should  the  cover-crop  in  orchards  be  plowed 
under?  May  weeds  ever  be  useful  in  orchards  late  in  the  season? 
Why  should  they  not  be  allowed  to  grow  early  in  the  season? 
What  are  the  disadvantages  of  allowing  weeds  to  grow  even  late 
in  the  season? 

What  does  the  application  of  stable  manure  do  for  the  land? 
Upon  what  does  its  value  depend  (119)?  How  should  stable 
manures  be  protected  or  stored?  Explain  what  you  understand  by 
a  covered  barnyard  (120rt).  How  are  stable  manures  affected  by 
exposure  to  the  weather?  What  is  the  value  of  thoroughly  rotted 
manure?  What  is  the  philosophy  of  composting  manures?  When 
the  manures  cannot  be  sheltered  or  protected,  what  disposition 
may  be  made  of  them?    What  precautions? 

What  is  the  value  of  muck?  What  is  peat,  and  what  is  its 
value?  Discuss  marl;  also  sawdust,  straw,  leaves,  pomace,  and 
the  like.  Under  what  conditions  do  you  think  it  would  pay  to 
plow  under  straw? 

In  Chapter  VI  the  general  discussion  of  fer- 
tilizer substances  is  continued,  but  in  this  case 
the  subject  is  commercial  plant-foods.  This  is 
a  subject  of   very  great   importance,  particularly 


304  THE     PRES^CIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

in  the  older  states,  and  it  will  be  of  increasing 
importance  as  the  countrj'  grows  older.  It  is  a 
technical  subject,  for  the  complete  understanding 
of  which  much  chemical  knowledge  is  needed. 
Persons  who  desire  to  study  the  subject  in  detail 
should  consult  special  works  and  bulletins. 
However,  the  general  philosophy  of  the  applica- 
tion of  commercial  plant -foods  may  be  under- 
stood from  this  brief  chapter. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  chapter  has  six 
coordinate  parts:  (1)  what  the  elements  of  plant- 
food  are  in  the  soil,  and  which  ones  are  most 
likely  to  be  exhausted;  (2)  the  nitrogen  supply; 
(3)  phosphoric  acid  supply;  (4)  potash;  (5) 
amendments,  or  those  substances  that  act  bene- 
ficially on  the  structure  or  physical  condition  of 
the  soil;    (6)  discussion  of  commercial  fertilizers. 

What  is  a  chemically  fertile  soil?  What  is  an  element  (lL'7a)? 
How  many  elements  are  supposed  to  be  necessary  to  the  plants 
(127;  pages  115-117)?  Which  of  these  elements  are  most  likely  to 
be  depleted  by  the  growing  of  crops?  In  order  that  these  elements 
may  be  useful  to  the  plants,  what  must  be  their  relation  to  water? 
Do  plants  use  these  elements  in  their  original  or  uncombined 
forms?  What  is  meant  by  a  compound  in  the  chemical  sense 
(130a)?  What  is  meant  by  "available"  plant-food?  Does  the 
soil  contain  much  unavailable  food  of  the  elements  that  plants 
need?  What  makes  plant-food  available?  What  is  the  influence 
of  tillage  in  this  respect?  Do  roots  themselves  make  plant-foods 
available  (131o,  review  also  paragraphs  30  and  30a)?  What  are 
the  disadvantages  in  the  use  of  barn  manures? 

What  is  the  office  of  nitrogen?  How  does  it  affect  the  plant? 
How  may  the   lack    of    nitrogen   be   discovered?    Explain   what 


REVIEW     OF     THE     BOOK  305 

nitrogen  is  and  what  its  sources  are.  What  is  ammonia?  Nitric 
acid?  Nitrate?  What  is  the  relation  of  humus  to  nitrogen?  What 
is  nitrification?  How  is  it  brought  about?  Is  the  nitrogen  of  the 
atmosphere  used  by  plants?  If  so,  through  what  parts  of  the 
plants  is  it  taken  up?  How  may  we  add  commercial  nitrogen 
to  the  soil? 

What  is  the  chief  office  of  phosphoric  acid?  What  crops  use 
liberally  of  it?  What  are  sources  of  phosphoric  acid?  What  is 
meant  by  the  term  phosphate?  What  is  p,n  acid  phosphate? 
Superphosphate  fl-tSaj?  Explain  the  relationships  of  phosphoric 
acid  to  lime.  What  is  a  "reverted"  phosphate?  In  what  forms 
are  the  phosphates  found  in  commercial  fertilizers? 

What  is  the  office  of  potash?  What  are  the  sources  of  supply? 
Whence  came  the  commercial  potash  salts?  Explain  what 
muriate  and  sulfate  of  potash  are. 

What  is  an  amendment?  Give  examples.  How  does  an 
amendment  affect  the  soil?  What  effect  may  lime  have  on  land? 
In  what  form  may  it  be  applied?  What  do  you  understand  by  an 
acid?  Alkali?  How  many  substances  may  be  tested  with  regard 
to  acidity  or  alkalinity  (153«)?  Make  the  test  with  vinegar  and 
with  lye. 

What  is  a  commercial  fertilizer?  What  is  meant  by  a  "com- 
plete" fertilizer?  W^hat  is  meant  by  "guaranteed  analysis?" 
What  is  meant  by  the  "brand?"  What  are  the  relative  com- 
mercial values  of  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid  and  potash?  Figure 
out  the  commercial  or  estimated  value  of  a  ton  of  commercial 
fertilizer  when  the  guaranteed  analysis  is  given.  How  may  you 
determine  what  is  the  value  of  commercial  fertilizer? 

Would  you  advise  using  a  complete  fertilizer,  or  only  one  of 
the  fertilizing  elements?  Explain  under  what  conditions.  In 
what  kind  of  crops  is  nitrogen  chiefly  needed?  Is  there  danger  of 
losing  nitrogen  from  the  soil?  Do  potash  and  phosphoric  acid 
tend  to  leach  out  as  rapidly  as  nitrogen?  In  what  soils  is  leach- 
ing least  pronounced?  When  are  fertilizers  applied,  before  or 
after  fitting  the  land?  Explain  the  six  conditions  that  govern 
the  application  of  commercial  fertilizers  f  1^5'.  Can  definite  rules 
be  given  for  the  application  of  such  fertilizers?    Why? 


306  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

PART  II.— THE  PLANT  AND  CROPS 

We  have  now  completed  a  general  review  of 
the  characteristics  of  the  soil,  the  means  of  im- 
proving its  condition  and  of  adding  to  its  rich- 
ness. We  now  come  to  the  second  of  our  gi-eat 
sultjects — the  growing  of  plants.  The  growing  of 
many  plants  together  results  in  the  securing  of 
a  crop.  Ordinarily  the  general  farmer  considers 
the  crop  rather  than  the  individual  plant,  whereas 
the  gardener  considers  individual  plants  rather 
than  crops.  That  is,  the  gardener  gives  each 
plant  special  care.  He  often  gi'ows  the  plant  in 
a  pot  and  every  vacancy  is  noticed.  The  gar- 
dener, therefore,  is  likely  to  secure  greater  results 
from  each  plant  than  the  general  farmer  is. 

It  will  be  seen  that  this  Part  11  is  laid  out  in 
six  chapters:  (vn)  what  the  offices  of  the  plant 
are  to  the  agriculturist;  (vm)  how  the  plant 
lives  and  grows;  (ix)  how  plants  may  be  prop- 
agated; (x)  how  land  may  be  prepared  in  order 
to  receive  the  seed;  (xi)  how  a  plant  is  cared 
for  after  it  has  germinated ;  (xn)  a  discussion 
of  a  few  fundamental  crops,  as  pasturage,  mea- 
dow, and  forage. 

Cliapier  7 

The  following  questions  will  elucidate  the 
range  of   the  offices  of  the  plant.     Note  that  the 


REVIEW     OF     THE     BOOK  307 

chapter  is  divided  into  five  coordinate  heads,  dis- 
cussing the  phmt  and  the  crop  in  its  general 
agricultural  bearings;  the  plant  in  its  relation 
to  the  soil;  the  plant  in  its  relation  to  climate; 
the  plant  in  relation  to  animal  life;  and  the  plant 
in  relation  to  man. 

Name  the  general  offices  of  the  plant,  as  indicated  in  para- 
graph 167.  What  is  meant  by  "crop"?  Name  a  dozen  crops. 
For  what  purpose  may  crops  be  grown? 

How  does  the  plant  influence  or  modify  the  soil?  How  does 
it  supply  humus?  How  does  it  protect  the  soil?  What  value  may 
a  tap-root  have  (170a)?  How  may  plants  be  utilized  to  prevent 
drifting  of  sands  and  other  loose  lands? 

Name  four  ways  in  which  the  plan  influences  the  supply  of 
moisture.  How  does  it  render  the  surface  of  the  earth  more 
inhabitable  and  enjoyable?  What  influence  have  forests  on  rain- 
fall (172a)? 

What  is  the  relation  of  plants  to  animals?  Can  it  be  said 
that  "all  flesh  is  grass?"  What  is  the  "round  of  life?"  Let  the 
class  read  aloud  and  in  concert  paragraph  175. 

Name  some  of  the  direct  uses  of  plants  to  man.  What  are 
staple  products?  What  are  semi-staples?  What  are  luxuries  or 
accessories?  What  are  condiments?  What  are  beverages?  What 
classes  of  plant  products  contribute  to  the  food  of  animals?  How 
are  plants  or  their  products  used  in  the  arts  or  manufactures? 
How  are  plants  useful  as  objects  of  ornament?  In  what  ways  do 
they  gratify  our  esthetic  tastes  and  sentiments?  What  is  flori- 
culture?   Landscape  horticulture? 


Chapter  8 

This  chapter,  on  how  the  plant  lives,  is  in- 
tended to  give  an  outline  of  some  of  the  most 
important    activities    of    plants.      If    the   reader 


308  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

wants  a  completer  account  of  these  matters  he 
should  consult  botanical  text -books.  It  will  be 
noticed  that  the  chapter  divides  into  four  co- 
ordinate heads:  (1)  what  the  plant  activities  are; 
(2)  the  factors  or  agencies  of  growth;  (3)  the 
processes  of  growth;  (4)  irritability,  or  move- 
ment in  plants. 

What  is  meant  by  the  phrase  that  the  plant  is  a  "  dependent 
structure?"  With  what  must  the  plant  be  supplied  in  order  that 
it  shall  live  and  grow?  What  is  meant  by  the  sensitiveness  or 
irritability  of  a  plant? 

Upon  what  does  the  stiffness  or  rigidness  of  a  succulent  plant 
depend?  Why  does  such  a  shoot  wilt  when  it  is  severed  from  the 
plant?  What  is  meant  by  the  turgidity  of  the  cells?  How  does 
the  soil- water  pass  from  cell  to  cell?  Explain  or  illustrate  tur- 
gidity (184a).  Wliat  are  root-hairs,  and  what  is  their  office? 
How  is  it  that  these  root-hairs  absorb  the  soil  water?  What  does 
the  soil- water  contain?  The  pupil  should  actually  see  and  examine 
root-hairs.  Compare  1856  and  figures  35-37.  How  much  water 
do  plants  contain?  Do  plants  absorb  more  water  than  they  need 
for  purposes  of  food?  If  so,  what  becomes  of  the  surplus?  What 
are  stomata?  What  is  their  action?  Illustrate  transpiration  (see 
figures  40  and  10).  What  is  root  pressure?  Through  what  part 
of  the  plant  does  the  soil  water  ascend?  How  may  the  path  of 
ascent  be  traced  (1896)? 

What  is  absorbed  with  the  soil-water?  To  what  part  of  the 
plant  does  this  soil-water,  with  its  contents,  go?  Does  the  plant 
absorb  only  those  substances  that  are  use  in  building  up  its  tissue? 
How  may  soil  substances  that  are  not  in  solution  be  brought  into 
that  condition?  Name  some  of  the  leading  substances  that  are 
brought  in  with  the  soil-water,  particularly  those  that  are  of 
primary  interest  to  the  farmer?  What  is  meant  by  the  '"ash"? 
What  does  the  ash  contain?  Do  all  the  ash  ingredients  come  from 
the  soil?  Do  any  of  the  non-ash  ingredients  come  from  the 
soil? 


REVIEW     OF     THE     BOOK  309 

"Where  does  the  plant  secure  its  oxygen?  What  is  meant  by 
respiration  in  plants?  How  is  it  compared  with  respiration  in 
animals?  When  does  respiration  chiefly  take  place?  How  may 
respiration  be  demonstrated  (194a)?  How  else  is  oxygen  secured 
than  through  the  aerial  parts?     Do  roots  need  air?     Why? 

What  element  is  most  abundant  in  plants?  Whence  is  it  de- 
rived? How  does  it  become  plant-food?  Define  photosynthesis. 
Compare  it  with  respiration.  What  is  assimilation  (198a)?  What 
is  chlorophyl  (1986)?  What  is  plant-food  (198c)?  In  what  sense 
may  it  be  said  that  plants  "  purify  the  air? " 

How  does  heat  aflfect  plants?  What  degree  of  heat  is  necessary 
for  certain  activities?  In  what  parts  of  the  world  do  green  or 
succulent  plant  tissues  most  abound?  Are  all  plants  equally 
affected  by  similar  temperature? 

What  substance  results  from  photosynthesis?  What  becomes 
of  it?  Illustrate  how  starch  may  be  detected  (203?^)?  What  are 
the  internal  and  external  evidences  of  growth?  Note  that  when  a 
plant  ceases  to  grow  it  begins  to  die.  In  what  parts  do  young 
stems  elongate?  How  does  the  root  behave  in  this  respect?  How 
may  these  differences  be  shown?  How  is  increase  in  diameter 
effected?  Why  does  the  external  bark  become  furrowed  and  crack 
and  break  away?     What  is  meant  by  the  word  "  sap"  (207a)? 

How  is  irritability  expressed?  Name  some  visible  move- 
ments of  plants.  How  do  plants  move  with  reference  to  light? 
With  reference  to  gravitation?  What  is  meant  by  the  phrase 
"reaction  of  plants  to  their  environment"? 

Chapter  9 

We  now  discuss  the  j)ropagation  of  plants. 
Note  that  the  chapter  is  divided  into  three  co- 
ordinate parts:  (1)  a  discussion  of  the  general 
means  by  which  plants  are  propagated;  (2)  prop- 
agation by  means  of  seeds;  (3)  propagation  by 
means  of  buds. 


310  THE     PRINCIPLES     OF     AGRICULTURE 

What  are  the  two  great  classes  of  methods  by  means  of  which 
plants  are  propagated?  What  three  objects  has  the  farmer  in 
mind  when  he  propagates  plants?  What  do  vou  understand  by 
the  term  "propagation"  as  applied  to  plants?  Why  are  not  seeds 
always  employed  as  a  means  of  propagation?  What  is  meant  by 
the  term  "to  come  true  to  seed?"  Explain  why  it  is  that  plants 
that  are  habitually  propagated  by  buds  usually  do  not  come  true 
from  seeds  (215rt). 

What  are  four  general  requisites  or  proper  conditions  for  the 
germination  of  seed?  What  is  meant  by  the  "vitality"  of  seeds? 
How  do  seeds  vary  in  vitality,  and  why?  What  is  a  "seed-bed?" 
In  what  condition  should  it  be?  What  caution  is  suggested  for  the 
handling  of  old  and  weak  seeds?  What  is  the  reason  for  the 
soaking  of  seeds?  How  is  oxygen  applied  to  germinate  seeds? 
How  may  this  supply  be  increased  in  a  simple  experimental  way? 
What  is  meant  by  the  proper  temperature  for  the  germination  of 
seeds?  Give  examples  of  temperatures  that  are  best  for  certain 
kinds. 

What  is  the  ideal  soil  for  a  seed-bed.  and  why?  How  is  the 
depth  of  planting  modified  by  the  kind  of  soil?  Why  is  the  earth 
packed  about  seeds?  What  caution  is  given  respecting  the  cover- 
ing of  very  small  seeds?  What  is  meant  by  "re-germinating?" 
How  are  very  hard  and  bony  seeds  sometimes  treated?  What  do 
you  understand  by  the  term  "stratification?'' 

What  do  you  tmderstand  by  the  phrase  "propagation  by  means 
of  buds"?  Under  what  circumstances  are  plants  propagated  by 
means  of  buds?  What  are  the  two  general  types  of  propagation 
by  buds? 

Explain  what  a  layer  is.  Bring  a  shoot  into  the  schoolroom 
and  show  how  layering  is  performed,  or  make  a  layer  from  some 
bush  or  tree  nearby.  What  plants  are  propagated  by  means  of 
layers?  When  are  the  layers  separated  from  the  parent  plants? 
When  may  the  operation  be  performed? 

What  are  the  two  kinds  of  propagation  by  means  of  detached 
or  separated  buds?  What  is  a  cutting?  A  slip?  A  graft?  Tell 
what  softwood  or  greenwood  cuttings  are,  and  explain  how  they 
are  made  and  handled.     What  are  hardwood  and  dormant   cut- 


REVIEW     OF     THE     BOOK  311 

tings?  How  made  and  how  handled?  Name  plants  that  are 
propagated  by  means  of  softwood  cuttings  and  hardwood  cuttings. 
What  is  a  "single  eve"  cutting,  and  how  planted? 

What  do  you  understand  by  the  term  grafting  ?  Cion  ? 
Stock?  What  is  meant  by  the  word  "bud"  as  used  by  grafters  or 
budders?  Why  do  the  cion  and  stock  unite?  Why  is  it  necessary 
to  bind  up  the  wounds  or  to  cover  them  with  wax?  Explain  the 
operation  of  cleft- grafting.  Of  shield-budding.  Under  what 
circumstances  and  on  what  plants  are  these  methods  commonly 
usedf  Of  what  age  of  wood  is  the  cion  usually  made?  When  is 
grafting  performed?  Budding?  How  are  plants  made  to  be  dwarf 
by  means  of  grafting  or  budding  (24165)? 


Chapter  10 

The  preparation  of  the  land  for  seed  will  uow 
be  considered.  Having  learned  how  plants  are 
propagated  by  the  gardener,  we  may  take  a 
broader  view  of  the  subject,  and  see  how  they 
are  started  in  the  fields  of  the  farmer.  We  shall 
now  have  to  do  with  (1)  the  general  factors  that 
determine  the  preparation  of  the  seed-bed;  (2) 
the  demands  made  by  the  plants  on  the  soil;  (3) 
the  actual  making  of  the  seed-bed;  (4)  the  ap- 
plication of  the  foregoing  principles  to  such 
fundamental  crops  as  wheat,  Indian  corn  and 
potatoes. 

What  is  said  about  the  loss  from  faulty  preparation  of  land  ? 
Why  is  it  so  very  important  that  the  farmer  should  know  what  the 
ideal  seed-bed  should  be?  What  is  a  seed-bed,  as  used  in  its 
agricultural  sense  (243«)?  What  are  the  two  factors  that  govern 
the  preparation  of  the  land  for  the  seed-bed? 

Do  fine  seeds  demand  a  different  kind  of  seed-bed  from  very 


312  THE     PRINCIPLES     OF     AGRICULTURE 

large  seeds  or  from  cuttiugs  of  potatoes?  Why?  How  may  plants 
change  their  root  system  to  adapt  themselves  to  different  kinds  of 
seed-beds?  How  is  the  seed  provided  with  food  to  start  it  off  before 
it  can  secure  a  foothold  on  the  soil?  Explain  the  different  char- 
acter of  seed-bed  demanded  by  clover  and  sugar  beets.  From 
what  part  of  the  soil  do  most  of  the  farm  plants  derive  their 
nourishment?  How  does  a  well  prepared  seed-bed  conduce  to  the 
earliness  of  the  crop?  How  do  plants  differ  in  regard  to  the 
character  of  seed-bed  that  they  require  (Explain  by  contrasting 
winter  wheat  and  Indian  corn)? 

Explain  the  importance  of  moisture  to  the  germination  of 
seeds.  What  kind  of  seed-bed  is  best  for  the  preservation  of  soil 
moisture?  Eeview  the  remarks  on  the  earth-mulch  in  Chapters 
HI  and  IV,  and  make  an  application  to  the  present  discussion. 
What  is  meant  by  the  "subsoil,"  "surface  soil,"  and  "sub-surface" 
soil?  What  is  the  value  of  rolling  the  seed-bed?  Explain  why 
the  seed-bed  should  contain  no  free  water.  If  it  is  desired  to 
plant  seeds  unusually  early,  what  must  be  the  prepaiation  of  the 
seed-bed, — that  is,  how  may  the  soil  be  warmed  up?  What 
effect  has  under-drainage  on  the  germination  of  seeds  (251«)? 
What  can  you  say  about  soils  that  tend  to  bake?  What  is  the 
advantage  of  sowing  seeds  very  early?  Do  all  seeds  that  germinate 
make  good  plants?  Are  those  that  fail  to  make  good  plants 
necessarily  a  total  loss  to  the  farmer?  Under  what  conditions  are 
seeds  sown  on  the  surface  of  the  soil  without  the  actual  prepaia- 
tion of  a  seed-bed?  What  cautions  are  given  respecting  the 
making  of  seed-beds  on  clay  lands?  Why  is  summer-fallowing 
practiced  as  a  preparation  for  wheat  growing  (255?))? 

Discuss  the  seed-bed  that  is  best  for  winter  wheat.  Under 
what  system  of  tillage  may  this  seed-bed  best  be  secured?  What 
eft'ect  does  this  seed-bed  have  on  the  root  system  of  the  wheat 
plant?  Why  is  it  best  that  wheat  roots  should  not  go  directly 
downwards  deep  into  the  soil?  Is  it  probable  that  the  root  system 
of  the  wheat  plant  tends  to  change  somewhat  as  spring  advances? 

What  is  the  ideal  seed-bed  for  maize  or  Indian  corn?  How 
does  it  differ  from  that  of  wheat?  What  are  the  best  machines 
for  planting  corn?    When  may  the  young  corn  be  tilled? 


REVIEW     OF     THE     BOOK  313 

What  is  the  proper  seed-bed  for  potatoes?  Should  tht^y  be 
planted  deep  or  shallow?  Should  they  be  grown  in  level  culture 
or  on  ridges? 

Chapter  11 

Having  now  discussed  the  preparation  of  the 
seed-bed  and  the  starting  of  the  crop,  we  may 
give  attention  to  some  of  the  principles  that 
underlie  the  subsequent  care  of  the  plant.  This 
care  falls  under  three  general  categories:  (1)  the 
care  given  by  means  of  tillage;  (2)  the  care 
given  by  means  of  pruning  and  training;  (3)  the 
care  given  by  keeping  insects  and  fungi  and 
other  enemies  in  check. 

What  is  the  first  consideration  in  the  care  of  the  plant? 
What  are  the  objects  of  tillage?  What  can  you  say  about  weeds? 
Name  some  of  the  general  means  of  keeping  weeds  in  check. 
How  often  should  surface  tillage  be  given?  Is  it  ever  practicable 
to  till  sowed  crops?  How  late  may  it  be  advisable  to  till  corn  by 
means  of  harrows? 

Is  tillage  advisable  in  fruit  plantations?  Why  is  it  that  fruit 
plantations  may  do  better  without  tillage  than  corn  or  potatoes 
do?  Why  is  it  very  important  to  till  fruit  plantations  early  in 
life?  May  the  orchard  need  clean  tillage  throughout  its  whole 
life?  May  sod  ever  be  employed  in  an  orchard  to  advantage? 
Should  fruit  plantations  be  tilled  uniformly  throughout  the  entire 
season?  Explain  a  good  general  method  for  the  tillage  of  fruit 
lands. 

What  is  pruning?  Training?  Is  pruning  unnatural?  Explain 
by  reference  to  a  tree  top  what  is  meant  by  the  phrase  "struggle 
for  existence." 

Explain  how  wounds  heal.  What  are  some  of  the  factors  that 
determine  the  proper  healing  of  wounds?  IIow  does  the  senson 
of  the  year  in  which  they  are  made  influence  the  healing?     What 


314  THE     PRINCIPLES     OF     AGRICULTURE 

should  be  the  length  and  form  of  stub  or  stump  when  a  large  limb 
is  cut  away?  What  is  the  value  of  dressings  on  wounds?  Men- 
tion one  or  two  good  dressings. 

Explain  why  we  prune.  What  is  the  result  of  heavy  pruning 
of  the  top?  Heavy  pruning  of  roots?  What  are  watersprouts? 
What  influence  has  the  checking  of  growth?  How  may  this 
checking  of  growth  be  brought  about?  What  is  the  philosophy 
of  heading-in  young  shoots?  Explain  the  effects  of  pruning  every 
year  versus  heavy  pruning  in  occasional  years. 

What  are  the  leading  kinds  of  enemies  of  plants?  Explain 
the  two  general  types  of  insects  with  reference  to  their  methods 
of  feeding.  Give  illustrations  in  each.  What  are  some  of  the 
classes  of  fungous  pests  with  reference  to  their  manner  of  living? 
What  is  meant  by  physiological  or  constitutional  troubles?  How 
are  these  troubles  to  be  distinguished?  What  is  a  fungus  (292rt)? 
What  is  a  host  (292^)? 

What  are  the  first  requisites  to  keeping  plants  free  of  insects 
and  fungi?  What  is  meant  by  prophylaxis  (294a)  ?  Name  the 
three  general  ways  in  which  insects  are  killed.  What  are  the 
caustic  applications?  Discuss  the  poisonous  applications.  What 
classes  of  materials  are  used  as  fungicides!  What  is  Bordeaux 
mixture?  What  is  meant  by  the  term  "spraying?"  Explain  how 
spraying  should  be  performed.  How  are  you  to  determine  what 
is  the  best  spray  pump?  Is  spraying  alone  suflScient  to  keep 
plants  healthy?    Explain  the  different  formulas. 

Chapter  12 

We  now  pass  to  a  discussion  of  pastures, 
meadows  and  forage.  Relatively  few  of  the  agri- 
cultural crops  can  be  considered  to  be  funda- 
mental, that  is,  to  underlie  the  general  system 
of  agricultural  practice.  It  is  impossible  in  a 
work  of  limited  scope  to  discuss  the  cultivation 
of  many  crops,  but  some   of   the  principles  that 


REVIEW     OF    THE    BOOK  315 

underlie  crop  cultivation  can  be  well  illustrated 
with  a  few  examples.  Since  grasses  and  other 
forage  crops  are  of  such  universal  use,  these 
have  been  chosen  for  illustration.  Note  that  the 
chapter  begins  with  (1)  a  general  discussion  of 
the  importance  of  grasses;  (2)  permanent  pas- 
tures;   (3)  meadows;    (-4)  other  forage  plants. 

Why  is  grass  said  to  be  the  fundamental  crop?  What  is  meant 
by  the  term  "grass"  as  used  in  its  popular  or  general -language 
sense  (3046-304e)?  What  do  you  understand  by  the  term  "rota- 
tion of  crops? "  What  are  the  advantages  of  rotation  ?  How 
important  is  grass  in  such  a  system?  Give  one  or  two  examples 
of  good  rotation  of  crops  (3056),  Explain  how  the  number  of 
grass  plants  to  a  square  foot  may  be  modified  by  the  uses  to  which 
the  plants  are  to  be  put. 

What  is  a  "pasture?"  What  is  a  "permanent  pasture"  (307a)? 
How  should  the  land  be  prepared  for  the  making  of  a  permanent 
pasture.-*  Explain  how  pastures  may  be  made  on  different  kinds 
of  soil.  Explain  how  a  good  pasture  may  be  secured  on  land 
that  has  been  cropped  too  continually  and  failed  to  produce  well 
under  rotation.  Why  is  it  necessary  to  prepare  the  soil  for  per- 
manent pasture  very  thoroughly?  Why  does  the  pasture  tend  to 
fail  with  age? 

Name  some  of  the  kinds  of  grasses  that  may  be  employed  in 
the  making  of  a  permanent  pasture.  Why  are  clovers  said  to  be 
"host  plants"  to  the  grasses  (312,  312a)?  How  may  clovers  be 
maintained  in  pastures?  As  pastures  begin  to  fail  for  lack  of 
plant-food,  how  may  they  be  revived?  Explain  how  important 
constant  watchfulness  is  to  the  maintenance  of  a  permanent 
pasture.  What  is  the  necessity  of  keeping  the  ground  constantly 
and  evenly  covered  with  sward?  What  can  you  say  about  pas- 
turing too  close?  About  letting  the  grasses  run  to  seed?  What 
is  said  about  the  importance  of  shade  on  the  surface  of  the  pas- 
ture lands  and  how  it  may  be  secured?  Recapitulate  (as  in  para- 
graph 317)  the  essentials  in  the  making  and  keeping  of  pastures. 


316  THZ     PBrsCTPLZ?    OP    AGBICITLTDmS 


largest  yieic?    ,: .- ; 
clorer  with  'ir   ^: 
unmixed  m  -      :  ~" ; 
■which  a  iLnrauow 
What  is  a  "p- 


of  the  gra,SBes  cf 


^'s^z: 


c    i  . T 


PAET    in.     THE    AXDIAL   AXD    STOCK 

Note  that  there  are  two  genr::,!  -objects  con- 
sidered in  this  part  of  the  b-'^'^!-:  I  t--^^  subjects 
are:  the  animal  as  anindiv:  :..  ._;  .vi  aggre- 
gation of  animals  known  as  live-stock.  Before 
one  can  handle  animals  in  groups  or  become  a 
stock  farmer,  he  must  know  the  characteristics 
of  the  individnal  animals  and  how  to  feed  and 
treat  them.  This  part  of  the  book  is  divided 
into  four  general  parts:     (xm)    the  general  ofEces 


REVIEW    OF    THE    BOOK  317 

of  the  animal  to  agriculture;  (xiv)  animal  physi- 
ology, or  how  the  animal  lives  and  grows  and 
performs  its  functions;  (xv)  the  feeding  of  the 
annnal  as  a  matter  of  farm  practice;  (xvi)  the 
general  management  of  the  stock. 


"to^ 


Chapter  13 

We  first  discuss  the  offices  of  the  animal.  Note 
that  the  offices  of  the  animal  as  related  to  the 
farm  are  thrown  into  several  general  heads. 
Cite  what  these  heads  are. 

Explain  the  offices  of  the  animal  as  outlined  in  paragraph  336. 
What  is  stock?  Name  some  of  the  animals  that  are  included 
under  this  term.  How  does  the  animal  have  relation  to  the  soil 
in  respect  to  maintaining  and  increasing  fertility?  What  relation 
has  stock  to  the  disposition  of  the  crops  of  the  farm?  Explain 
how  the  animal  itself  has  intrinsic  value  to  man.  Classify  the 
subject,  as  in  ^4rt,  4fe,  4c.  What  do  you  understand  by  the  phrase, 
"the  animal  as  a  beast  of  burden?"  In  what  ways  does  the  ani- 
mal perform  labor  for  the  farmer?  How  may  the  animal  act  as  a 
destroyer  of  pests?  What  influence  has  the  stock  industry  on  the 
diversification  of  labor?  What  is  meant  by  the  phrase  "diversi- 
fication of  labor?" 

Chapter  14 

Note  that  there  are  six  coordinate  parts  in 
this  chapter  on  how  the  animal  lives.  Give  these 
six  parts  in  their  order  or  write  them  on  the 
blackboard. 

This     chapter    is     somewhat    technical,    and 


318  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICrLTURE 

extra  time  should  be  given  to  it.  The  reader 
will  do  well  to  study  it  until  he  feels  a  sense  of 
mastery  of  the  subject  as  here  presented. 

What  is  a  cell?  Why  does  this  discussion  begrin  with  the  cell? 
Discuss  single-celled  animals,  as  in  paragraphs  356-S59.  Do  these 
lowly  animals  have  distinct  organs?  What  is  meant  by  "many- 
celled  animals?  "  What  are  the  offices  of  individual  cells  in  these 
many-celled  animals,  as  compared  with  that  of  single-celled 
animals?  Whaf  is  meant  by  the  "process  of  nutrition?"  By  the 
"nervous  processes?"  By  the  "processes  of  secretion"  (36;>a)? 
What  are  glands  (363?)),  and  what  are  some  of  their  offices? 
What  are  the  offices  of  the  corpuscles  of  the  blood?  With  what 
may  these  corpuscles  be  compared?  What  is  the  lymph  and  the 
lymphatic  system  (365,  365a)?  What  is  meant  by  a  specialized  and 
a  generalized  organ  or  organism  (360a)? 

What  are  the  kinds  of  food  as  outlined  in  367?  What  are 
herbivorous  animals?  Carnivorous?  How  do  the  digestive  organs 
of  the  herbivorous  animals  differ  from  others?  Compaze  ths 
digestive  apparatus  of  the  horse  with  that  of  the  ox.  How  does 
artificial  care  and  selection  modify  the  size  of  the  digestire  organs? 
What  must  all  foods  contain  in  order  to  be  of  use  to  the  animal? 
Name  nitrogenous  foods.  Name  non-nitrogeneus  foods.  What 
is  the  special  office  of  the  latter?  Are  the  non- nitrogenous  foods 
ever  formed  from  the  nitrogenous?  How?  What  is  meant  by  fat 
(371a)?  What  are  the  mineral  salts?  What  is  the  constitution  of 
ideal  food?  What  is  meant  by  a  well-balaneed  ration?  Can  a 
definite  mathematical  ration  be  constnieted  titat  will  be  of  equal 
value  for  all  animals?    Explain. 

What  is  digestion?  What  is  the  alimentary  canal?  What  are 
the  digestive  secretions?  Discuss  saliva.  What  is  the  active 
principle  of  saliva,  and  what  is  its  office?  What  are  the  offices 
of  the  Tarious  stomachs  in  ruminating  animals?  What  is  the 
office  of  the  chewing  of  the  cud?  How  do  the  saliTaiy  glands 
differ  between  youth  and  age?  What  relation  has  this  to  the  kind 
of  food  that  an  animal  should  have?  What  are  the  three  digestive 
principles  produced  by  the   stomach?     Describe  them.     What  is 


REVIEW     OF     THE     BOOK  319 

an  antiseptic  (387a)?  What  is  pepsin  and  peptone?  How  are 
peptones  distinguished?  What  is  their  office?  What  is  the  milk- 
curdling  fermeut?  What  is  a  ferment  (379<7i?  What  is  rennet,  aud 
for  what  is  it  used?    Where  is  the  gastric  juice  secreted  in  birds? 

What  digestion  takes  place  in  the  intestines?  Describe  the 
fluids  there  secreted.  What  is  bile  and  where  secreted?  What  is 
its  office?  Discuss  pancreatic  juice.  What  is  meant  by  an  emul- 
sion (396a)?     What  is  the  intestinal  juice? 

The  various  foods  having  been  digested,  they  are  now  to  be 
aborbed  or  taken  into  the  bodily  system.  Describe  how  they  are 
absorbed  by  means  of  villi.  Describe  what  a  villus  is.  Into 
what  fluids  do  these  digestive  matters  pass? 

The  blood  having  received  the  digested  foods,  these  materials 
now  go  to  various  parts  of  the  body  to  build  up  the  tissues  and 
repair  waste.  What  is  one  of  the  most  important  new  products 
resulting  from  digestion?  What  transformation  takes  place  in 
the  liver?    What  are  ptomaines  and  toxins  (-lOOa)? 

What  is  breathing?  What  is  the  relative  constitution  of  in- 
haled and  exhaled  air?  How  is  the  air  brought  into  contact  with 
the  blood?  How  is  the  blood  circulated  in  the  warm-blooded 
animals?  What  is  the  nature  of  blood  as  it  goes  from  the  heart 
and  returns  to  it?  What  becomes  of  the  excess  of  oxygen  in  the 
new  or  pure  blood?  Where  does  the  real  effect  of  breathing  take 
place?  How  is  the  amount  of  needed  air  modified  by  the  con- 
dition or  activity  of  the  animal?  How  does  the  amount  vary  be- 
tween different  species  of  animals?  At  what  point  does  air  be- 
come unable  to  support  life  because  of  carbon  dioxid?  What  is 
the  value  of  good  ventilation?     Give  any  practical  hints. 

What  is  meant  by  "waste  of  tissue?  "  Under  what  conditions 
does  waste  proceed  most  rapidly?  Under  what  conditions  is 
waste  repaired?  Does  the  waste  take  place  in  exact  proportion 
to  the  energy  or  work  expended  by  the  individual?  When  will 
the  animal  lay  up  fat?  Under  what  conditions  are  milk-pro- 
ducing animals  profitable  to  their  owners?  What  are  the  most 
favorable  conditions  for  the  fattening  of  animals?  What  are  the 
dangers  of  too  close  confinement?  Is  the  animal  body  to  be 
likened  to  a  mere  machine  (426)? 


320  THE     PRINCIPLES     OF    AGRICULTUBB 

Chapter  i.j 

Note  the  four  co-ordinate  parts  into  which 
this  chapter  on  the  feeding  of  the  ayv.w.ai  is 
divided;  namely,  sources  from  which  animal 
food  is  secured,  how  the  animal  uses  the  food, 
the  composition  of  fodders,  and  the  practice  of 
feeding. 

What  is  the  nature  of  animal  food?  What  is  a  fodder?  What 
mast  fodder  contain  in  order  to  be  useful? 

How  is  it  that  the  animal  is  able  to  secure  energy  from  the 
materials  stored  in  plants?  How  does  the  animal  first  expend 
energy  on  the  food?  How  may  the  profit  in  fodder  be  represented? 
Why  is  it  that  some  sabstanees  that  contain  an  abundance  of 
plant -food  may  still  be  unprofitable  for  feeding?  Name  the  fire 
wars  in  which  the  animal  uses  fodder.  When  the  food  is  scant 
and  insufficient,  how  is  it  used?  What  is  meant  by  "food  of 
maintenance,"  "food  of  support,"  and  "food  of  production?"  Is 
all  the  food  or  material  consumed  by  the  animal  of  use  to  it  in 
building  up  animal  tissue?  Why?  How  does  the  proportion  of 
food  digested  vary  in  different  animals?  How  does  it  Tsry  with 
the  character  of  the  food  itself  ? 

Name  the  varions  classes  of  substances  which  compose  fod- 
ders. To  what  extent  is  water  present  in  fodders?  What  is  a  by- 
product ( 437ia  \  ?  What  is  the  use  of  the  water  to  animals?  How 
does  the  water  content  increase  the  Talne  of  fodder  in  general? 
What  is  ash?  Prom  what  sources  do  animals  secure  all  the  ash 
that  they  need?  What  is  the  importance  of  albuminoids  as  fodder 
constituents?  What  elements  do  they  contain?  How  does  the 
composition  of  albuminoids  vary?  What  are  carbohydrates? 
What  is  the  signification  of  the  term  from  the  chemical  point  of 
view  (445/i>?  What  is  the  particular  ofBce  of  carbohydrates? 
What  is  meant  by  fiber?  Diseoss  the  importance  of  fats  in  fod- 
ders.    How  is  the  feeding  value  of  fat  expressed  (449)? 

What  are  the  classes  of  fodder  that  are  of  distinct  use  to  the 


REVIEW     OF     THE     BOOK  321 

animal?  What  are  they  called  collectively?  What  is  a  ration? 
What  is  a  balanced  ration?  What  is  a  nutritive  ration?  What  is 
a  "wide"  and  a  ''narrow"  nutritive  ration?  Give  an  example  (as 
susrgested  by  453'<).  What  is  the  value  of  the  nutritive  ration  in 
actual  feeding  practice?  Which  of  the  food  constituents  is  most 
likely  to  be  lacking  and  is  most  needful,  therefore,  to  be  supplied? 
On  what  does  the  quantity  of  food  required  by  an  animal  depend 
(458,  45Srt,  459)?  How  does  the  amount  vary  between  youth  and 
age?  How  is  the  profit  secured  from  feeding?  Upon  what  does 
the  amount  of  "food  for  production'"  depend?  Give  an  illustra- 
tion (462).  Is  the  food  that  an  animal  actually  eats  a  measure  of 
the  amount  that  it  actually  needs?  Explain.  What  is  a  feeding 
standard?  Give  an  example.  How  may  these  feeding  standards 
be  varied?  What  is  the  advantage  of  mere  bulk  in  ration?  What 
are  the  substances  that  give  bulk  to  a  ration?  What  is  meant  by 
the  term  "coarse"  as  applied  to  fodders?  What  by  the  term 
"concentrated  fodders?"  What  is  the  danger  in  providing  a  too 
bulky  ration?  About  what  proportion  of  dried  matter  should  a 
particular  ration  contain  for  cud-chewing  animals?  For  horses? 
What  is  meant  by  palatableness?  What  is  its  value  in  fodders? 
Give  one  reason  why  silage  is  a  good  fodder.  What  is  silage  (46961? 
If  there  is  any  advantage  in  cooking  foods,  explain  what  it  is. 
What  is  the  advantage  of  cutting  or  shredding  fodders?  What  is 
the  advantage  of  variety  or  change  in  the  food  given  to  an  animal? 

Chapter  16 

A  brief  discus.siou  of  the  management  of  stock 
may  now  be  imdertakeu.  Note  the  four  divisions 
into  which  this  chapter  falls:  as,  the  breeding 
of  stock,  where  stock  raising  is  advisable,  how 
much  stock  can  be  kept  on  a  given  area,  and 
the  care  of  stock  in  general. 

What  is  meant  by  the  propagation  or  increase  of  the  race? 
What  is  necessary  beyond  the  mere  propagation  of  stock?    What 


322  THE     PRINCIPLES     OF     AGRICULTURE 

is  breeding  and  what  are  its  two  objects?  What  is  a  breed?  Name 
breeds  in  various  classes  of  stock.  When  may  a  man  be  said  to 
be  a  stock-breeder?  What  is  meant  by  the  ''mental"  ideal,  and 
what  is  its  value  in  stock-breeding?  When  may  the  ideal  be  im- 
practicable? How  does  the  ideal  vary  with  different  classes  of 
stock?  How  are  animals  judged  in  regard  to  their  excellence? 
What  is  meant  by  the  judging  or  the  scoring  of  animals  (4sia)? 
If  possible,  apply  the  score  cards  on  pages  276  and  277  to  animals 
for  which  they  are  intended.  What  is  the  first  practice  in  breed- 
ing for  an  ideal?  What  is  the  second  point?  What  is  meant  by 
a  "prepotent"  animal?  Give  some  of  the  common  characteristics 
of  a  prepotent  animal.  What  is  a  "sport"?  What  importance  do 
these  sports  usually  have  in  the  improvement  of  the  race?  What 
is  meant  by  the  terra  "fixed"  as  applied  to  breeding?  What  is  a 
pedigree?  What  are  the  advantages  of  a  pedigree  (486,  486a;? 
What  is  meant  by  pure-blooded  stock?  Is  pure  stock  always  to 
be  advised  for  the  general  farmer,  and  why?  How  may  the 
farmer  secure  the  advantages  of  good  breeding  (487,  487a)? 

In  what  regions  and  under  what  conditions  is  live  -  stock 
growing  particularly  advantageous?  Discuss  the  advantages  of 
the  West  and  South  where  the  range  areas  are  large.  Discuss 
the  narrow  and  sheltered  valleys  of  the  North.  What  is  the  gen- 
eral tendency  respecting  the  extent  of  stock  raising?  Name 
some  conditions  under  which  a  large  quantity  of  stock  can  not  be 
kept  with  the  most  profit.  Let  the  class  read  paragraph  491  in 
concert. 

How  much  stock  may  be  profitably  kept  on  an  acre  in  the  rich 
prairie  countries?  How  much  on  farms  in  the  East?  What  are 
the  two  theories  or  principles  controlling  the  quantity  of  stock  a 
farm  can  keep  with  profit?  Explain  the  practice  of  buying  stock 
to  feed.  What  are  the  economies  of  this  practice  when  figured 
on  the  basis  of  wheat  bran  (496,  497 1?  When  is  this  practice  of 
stock-feeding  likely  to  be  profitable?  What  is  one  reason  for  the 
growth  of  this  practice  (499)?  What  is  the  value  of  stock- feeding 
in  respect  to  maintaining  the  fertility  of  the  land  (500,  500a)? 

What  is  the  general  importance  of  making  animals  comfort- 
able?    Discuss  ventilation,  and  how  secured.     Discuss  the  tem- 


iiE\nEW     OF    THE     BOOK  323 

perature  at  which  stables  should  be  maintained.  Discuss  the 
importance  of  light,  and  how  it  may  be  controlled.  Discuss  also 
the  means  of  storing  the  manure.  Discuss  some  principles  that 
underlie  the  watering  of  animals.  How  does  the  ration  vary  with 
the  ammal,  its  age,  and  the  conditions  under  which  it  is"kept> 
How  should  the  ration  and  time  of  feeding  be  governed.^  What 
IS  the  danger  of  feeding  too  much  at  any  one  time?  Let  the  class 
read  m  concert  paragraph  510a,  at  the  bottom  of  pa-e  279 


INDEX 


Accessories.  109. 

Acid  phosphate,  94,  95. 

Acid  soils,  97,  98,  104„189. 

Acidity,  234. 

.Esthetic  tastes.  109. 

Agassiz,  referred  to,  35. 

Agricultural  chemistry,  9,  113. 

Agricultural  colleges,  2. 

Agricultural  physics,  6. 

Agriculture,  1,  11,  14. 

Air  in  soils,  38,  72. 

Albumin.  213,  219,  255. 

Albuminoids,  245,  246,  248,  257. 

Alfalfa.  192,  199. 

Alimentary  canal,  215,  233. 

Alkaline,  234. 

Alluvial  lands.  24. 

Alps,  denundation  of,  30. 

Amendments.  40,  97. 

Ammonia,  90,  91. 

Amieba.  231. 

Amylopsin,  221. 

Anacharis  Canadensis,  128. 

Analysis  of  soil,  42. 

Angleworms,  17.  [271. 

Animal,   feeding  of,  240,  247,  266, 

Animal,  how  it  lives,  208. 

Animal  industry,  2,  3. 

Animal  locomotion,  7. 

Animal,  the,  201. 

Animals  and  soil-building,  16. 

Animals,  species  and  breeds,  14. 

▲nimfti-knowledge,  8. 


Antiseptic,  164,  173,  218,  234, 

Apiculture.  3. 

Apple,  propagation,  144. 

Apple,  varieties  of,  14. 

Apples,  108. 

Apples,  tilling,  161,  162. 

Apple-scab,  167,  175. 

Apple-worm.  205. 

Aquatic  plants,  19. 

Arthur  &  MacDougal,  128,  129,  131. 

Arts,  animals  in.  203. 

Ash  in  foods.  242,  243. 

Ashes.  96. 

Assimilation  in  plants,  115,  128. 

Astronomy.  15. 

Atkinson,  referred  to,  124,  128, 131. 

Availability,  88,  104. 

Babcock  test,  278. 

Bacillus  ubiquitus,  35. 

Bacteria.  35,  167. 

Bailey,  quoted,    31,  33,  45,  76.  84, 

111,  129,  130,  131,  140,  157.  17L 
Banana,  1. 
Barley,  106. 

Barley  and  pastures,  Ifel. 
Barley,  wild.  191. 
Bam,  268,  269. 
Barnes,  referred  to,  131. 
Barn-yard,  82,  85,  86. 
Bayous,  23. 

Bean,  germination,  124. 
Bean  soil,  42. 


(325) 


326 


INDEX 


Beans.  5.  92.  108. 

Beans  and  moisture,  57. 

Bedding.  267. 

Bee-culture,  3,  11. 

Beef.  11,  203. 

Beet,  sugar.  147. 

Beetles.  166. 

Bermuda  grass,  181. 

Beverage.  108,  109. 

Bicycle.  204. 

Bile.  220.  236. 

Birds,  digestion  in,  220. 

Birds,  tame.  204. 

Black-knot,  167. 

Blights.  167.  174. 

Blood.  210.  211,  222.  226. 

Blood,  dried.  92.  203,  206. 

Blue  grass,  181,  190,  195,  197. 

Bogs.  20.  181. 

Bone.  93.  207. 

Bordeaux  mixture,  169,  173,  177. 

Borers,  167,  168. 

Botany,  7.  15. 

Boulders,  24. 

Bran  for  feeding.  266. 

Breathing  in  animals,  224. 

Breeding.  8,  259. 

Breeds,  15. 

Brisket,  272,  276. 

Buckwheat,  79,  108,  136.  181. 

Bud  propagation,  136. 

Budding,  139.  140,  144. 

Buds,  opening.  130. 

Bulk  in  ration.  252. 

Burning  of  soils,  29. 

Business,  4,  9. 

Butter,  1,  11,  202. 

Buttermilk,  255. 

By-products,  255.  266. 

Cabbage,  club-root,  175. 


Calcium,  87,  116. 

California  Experiment  Station.  63. 

Callus.  138. 

Cambium.  121,  139. 

Canned  fruits,  11. 

Capacity  of  soil,  50,  59.  157. 

Capillary  water,  48,  55,  5«,  150.  157 

Carbohydrate.  127.  243,  246,  256. 

Carbon  dioxid,   104,   117,  118.    127 

129,  224,  235. 
Carbonate  of  copper,  169,  177. 
Care  of  stock,  258. 
Carex.  194. 
Carnation,  14,  106. 
Carnivorous  animals,  108,  212 
Casein.  213,  218,  219.  256. 
Catch-crops,  78,  80. 
Cats,  108,  204. 

Cattle.  3.  14,  108,  201,  212,  272, 
Cauliflowers,  109. 
Cavanaugh,  chapter  by,  87. 
Cereals,  181,  263. 
Charcoal.  104. 
Chautauqua  belt.  14. 
Checking  growth.  165. 
Cheese,  1,  11.  219,  235. 
Chemical  action.  32. 
Chemicals  in  schools,  105. 
Chemistry,  8.  13,  15. 
Chester,  quoted,  34. 
Chicken,  3,  235. 
Chine,  272. 
Chlorophyll,  118. 
Chrysanthemum,  14. 
Chyle,  235. 
Cider,  1,  109. 
Cion,  139.  144. 
Civil  engineering,  7. 
Clay,  moisture  in,  51 
Climatology,  9. 
Climate,  3,  9,  107,  111. 


INDEX 


327 


Clinton  L.  A.,  chapter  by,  47. 

Clinton.  L.  A.,  referred  to,  76. 

Clod-crushers,  69. 

Clothing.  1.  [80,  81,  84. 

Clover,   green-crop,  22,  67,  78,  70, 

Clover  in  meadows,  181,   186,   189, 

Cover  roots,  110.  [19.3,199. 

Clover,  plant-food  in,  203,  206. 

Clover,  seed-bed  for.  151. 

Clovers  and  nitrogen,  92 

Club-root,  175. 

Cobbett's  Tull,  72. 

Colleges,  2. 

Come  true.  136,  140. 

Comfrey,  191. 

Commercial  fertilizer,  95,  98,  203. 

Compost,  34,  82. 

Compounds,  88,  103. 

Condiments,  109.  [71. 

Conservation   of   moisture,  56,  65, 

Constituents  of  food,  213,  242,  266. 

Constitutional   troubles,    166,    167, 

Cooking  food,  2.54.  [170,  174. 

Copper  fungicide,  169. 

Corn.     See  maize. 

Cornell  Experiment  Station,  63. 

Cotton,  109,  120. 

Cotton-seed  meal,  267. 

Cover-crops,  52,  79,  80,  162. 

Covered  yard,  82,  85,  86. 

Cow,  air  required  by,  228.  269 

Cow,  points  of,  273. 

Cows,  feeding,  267. 

Cows,  standard  for,  252. 

Cow-peas,  79. 

Crabs,  206. 

Crop  of  fowl,  220,  235. 

Crops,  106,  202. 

Cultivators,  69. 

Culture,  72. 

Currant  bug,  174. 


Currants,  cuttings,  138. 
Cut-flowers,  109. 
Cuttings,  138,  142. 
Cypress  knees,  127. 

Dairy  husbandry,  3. 

Daisies  in  meadows,  31,  170. 

Darwin,  quoted,  13,  33. 

Davy,  work  of,  13. 

DeCandolle,  quoted,  14. 

Delta,  35. 

Department  of  Agriculture,  13. 

Dewlap,  273,  277. 

Dicalcic  phosphate,  95. 

Digestion,  215,  240. 

Discovery,  12. 

Diseases,  8,  10,  162. 

Ditches,  .53,  60. 

Diversification  of   labor,   205,   207. 

Dogs,  108,  204.  [265,  278. 

Drag,  76. 

Drainage,  53,  60. 

Drains,  48,  53,  60. 

Dressings,  83. 

Dressings  for  wounds,  164. 

Dried  blood,  92,  203,  206. 

Dried  meat,  206. 

Droughts,  49,  24. 

Ducks,  3,  200. 

Duggar,  B.  M.,  chapter  by,  112. 

Dust  in  air,  35. 

Dwarfing,  137,  144. 

Dyes,  109. 

Earth-mulch,  57,  65,  69,  71,  149. 

Earthworms.  17,  33. 

Ecology,  8,  13. 

Eel-grass,  19. 

Egg.  white  of.  213,  256. 

Eggs,  1,  11,  202. 

Elements,  87,  103. 


328 


INDEX 


Elodea  Canadensis,  128. 
Emulsions,  168,  175,  221,  235. 
Enemies  of  plants,  166. 
Energy,  240. 
Engineering,  7. 
Enriching  land,  77. 
Ensilage.     See  silage. 
Entomology,  15. 
Environmfnt,  8,  13. 
Escutcheon,  273,  276. 
Evaporated  fruits,  1  [125. 

Evaporation  from  plants,  113,  114, 
Exhausted  lands,  27. 
Experiment  stations,  2,  13. 
Exploration,  12. 
Extensive  farming,  86. 

Factorv.  11. 

Fallowing,  158. 

Fall-plowing,  40. 

Farming,  1,  11. 

Farm-manures,  41. 

Farm-practice,  4,  28. 

Farm  resources,  77. 

Fats  in  food,  213,  229,  243,  247,  256. 

Feed-mills,  7. 

Feeding  of   animal,  240,  247,  266, 

Feeding  standards,  252.  [271. 

Ferment,  233. 

Fertility,  real,  77. 

Fertilizer,  41,  43,  95,  98,  203. 

Fertilizers,  brands  of,  15. 

Fescue,  190,  191. 

Fiber  in  foods,  243,  246. 

Fibers,  2,  28,  109. 

Fibrin,  219. 

Film  moisture,  49,  59. 

Fish,  3,  201,  203. 

Fish,  ground,  204,  206,  207. 

Flax,  109. 

Flesh  is  grass.  108. 


Float,  71. 

Floating  islands,  20. 

Floriculture,  3,  109. 

Florists'  plants,  46. 

Flour,  11. 

Flower-pot  experiment,  57,  59. 

Flowers,  varieties,  15. 

Fodder,  109,  239. 

Food  constituents,  213,  243,  267. 

Food,  cooking,  255.  [271 

Food  of  animals,  108,  212,  240,  243 

Food,  quantity  of,  250,  258,  266. 

Forage,  109,  191. 

Forcing-house,  86. 

Forest  a  crop,  106. 

Forestry,  2,  3,  12,  111. 

Fowls,  3,  259. 

Fowls,  digestion  in,  220. 

Foxes,  212. 

Free  water,  48,  50. 

Freezing  pulverizes  soil,  68. 

Frigid  zones,  plants  in,  119. 

Fruit-evaporating  machinery,  7. 

Fruit-growing,  3,  11,  80,  96. 

Fruit  plantations,  tilling,  161. 

Fuchsias,  cuttings,  138. 

Fungi,  166,  167,  169,  173. 

Fungicides,  169. 

Furrow,  72. 

Furrow-slice,  74. 

Gang-plows,  163,  171. 

Ganong,  quoted,  33. 

Garden,  12. 

Gastric  juice,  215,  218. 

Gaye,  quoted,  33,  36,  129 

Geese,  3. 

Geike,  referred  to,  30. 

Geology,  9,  14. 

Geraniums,  cuttings,  138. 

German  peasants,  206 


INDEX 


329 


Germination,  116,  124,  133,  135. 

Germs,  21,  35,  91. 

Gills,  225. 

Ginger,  109. 

Gizzard,  220,  235. 

Glaciers,  24,  35. 

Glands,  210,  232. 

Gluten,  213,  218.  219. 

Gluten-meal,  267. 

Glycogen,  211,  213,  232. 

Grafting,  137,  138,  139,  144. 

Grain-feeders,  212. 

Grains,  2,  109. 

Grains  and  phosphoric  acid,  93. 

Gramineae,  193. 

Granite,  wearing  away,  30. 

Grape  districts,  277. 

Grape  mildew,  167. 

Grapes,  cuttings,  138,  142. 

Grass,  179,  189,  193. 

Grass  and  daisies,  31. 

Grass-feeders,  212. 

Gravitation  and  growth,  122. 

Green-crops,  plowing  under,  60,  65. 

Green-manures,  21,  41,  52,  78,  79. 

Growth  and  nitrogen,  89. 

Growth,  in  plants,  113,  120,  121. 

Growth  processes,  120,  121. 

Grub,  white,  205. 

Gypsum,  95,  105,  123. 

Habitableness,  107. 
Hair-waste,  204. 
Half-way  stone,  32. 
Happiness,  6. 
Hard-pan,  67,  74. 
Harrows,  69,  155,  160. 
Harvesting  machinery,  7. 
Hay  raising,  185. 
Heading-in,  166. 
Heart,  225,  228,  238. 


Heat  and  germination,  133. 

Heat  and  plants.  119. 

Heat-producing,  229,  246,  256. 

Hellebore,  169. 

Hemp,  109. 

Herbage  and  plowing,  67,  68. 

Herbivorous  animals,  108,  212. 

Hogs.     See  pigs  and  swine. 

Hoes,  69. 

Honeysuckle,  layering,  142. 

Hoof-meal,  204,  206. 

Hop  districts,  277. 

Horn,  204. 

Horse,  air  required  by,  269. 

Horse,  intestine  of,  212. 

Horse,  trotting,  275. 

Horses,  3,  108,  201,  212. 

Horses,  food  of,  212,  272. 

Horses,  standards  for,  252. 

Horticulture,  2.  3,  12. 

Hortus,  12. 

Host,  167,  174,  183,  197. 

Housing  of    animals,  258,  266,  272. 

Hudson,  palisades  of,  30. 

Humus.  20.  22.  34,  41,  51,  52,  77, 

78,  81,  91,  93,  96,  149,  194,  264. 
Hungarian  grass,  193. 
Hunting,  12. 
Husbandry,  2,  11,  28. 
Hydraulic  rams,  7. 
Hydrochloric  acid  in  stomach,  218. 
Hydrogen,  90. 
Hydroscopic  water,  48,  49. 

Implements,  66,  69,  71,  74    75,  76, 

158,  160,  162,  171. 
Indian  com.     See  maiie. 
Inorganic  matter,  16,  28. 
Insalivation,  216. 
Insecticides,  168. 
Insects,  fighting,  15,  161,  166.  1S8. 


330 


INDEX 


Intensive  farming.  79.  84,  265. 
Intemode.  121. 
Inter-tillage,  64.  72. 
Intestinal  juice,  215,  220.  221. 
Intestines,  sizes  of,  212. 
Iodine.  130,  233. 
Iron.  87. 

Irrigation,  48.  58. 
Irritability.  122. 
Islands,  floating,  20. 

Japan  clover,  79,  182.  194,  197. 
Jellies.  11. 

Judging  animals,  261.  273,  275. 
June  grass.  181.  190,  195.  197. 
Jute.  109. 

Kansas  Experiment  Station.  63. 
Kerosene  and  emulsion.  168,  175. 
King,  quoted,  13,  33,  35,  36,  43,  45, 

63.  ?2,  111. 
Kitchen-garden  vegetables,  3,  12. 

Lagoons,  19,  23,  107. 

Lakes  and  soil,  19. 

Land  defined,  16. 

Landscape  horticulture,  3.  109. 

Law,  James,  chapter  by.  208. 

Lawn,  3,  109. 

Layers,  137,  142. 

Leachy  soils.  38,  39,  50,  91. 

Leaf-blights.  174. 

Leaf-hoppers.  168. 

Leaves,  84. 

Leguminous  plants,  79,  80  181,  192. 

Lespedeza  bicolor,  194. 

Lichen,  31. 

Liebig.  work  of,  13. 

Lilacs,  layering,  142. 

Lime,  45,  87.  97. 

Lime  and  phosphorus,  94. 


Lime  and  sulfuric  acid.  33 
Litmus  paper,  98,  104.  234. 
Liver,  220,  223. 
Live-stock,  263. 
Loam,  20,  51. 
Locomotion,  animal,  7. 
Lodeman,  referred  to,  177. 
Loin,  273,  276,  277. 
London  purple,  168,  176. 
Longevity  of  seeds,  133,  141. 
Lubbock,  quoted,  30. 
Lucerne,  199. 
Lumber,  12,  109. 
Lungs.  225.  226,  238,  246. 
Luxuries,  5,  109. 
Lymph.  211,  222,  232,  236. 

Machinery.  7. 

Maize.  5,  26,  31,  47,  57,  58,  79. 

Maize  and  live-stock,  264,  266. 

Maize  and  oxygen,  117. 

Maize,  food  in.  278. 

Maize  forage,  192. 

Maize,  regermination,  136. 

Maize,  seed-bed  for,  148, 152. 

Maize,  tilling,  160,  170. 

Mal-nutrition.  8. 

Mammals,  3. 

Management  of  stock,  259. 

Mangrove,  19,  33. 

Manufacture,  2,  11,  15. 

Manures,  21,  41.  52.  65,  81,  82, 

93,  201.  206.  265.  268. 
Many-celled  animals,  208. 
Marble,  wearing  away,  30.  32. 
Market-gardening.  86,  265. 
Market  problems,  5. 
Marl,  83. 

Marsh  grasses,  19. 
Match,  104. 
Mathematics,  15. 


INDEX 


331 


Meadows,  harrowing,  160. 

Meadows,  making,  ISo. 

Meal  for  feeding,  267. 

Meat,  5,  202. 

Meat,  dried,  206. 

Mechanics,  7. 

Medicine,  2.  8. 

3Iedicines,  109. 

Mellow  soils,  38,  39. 

Melon  and  cold.  120. 

:Merrill,  referred  to,  36. 

3Ieteorology,  9. 

Microbe,  35. 

Micro-organisms,  22,  34. 

Micro-organisms  and  ferment,  232. 

Micro-organisms  and  nitrogen.  91. 

Milch  cow,  care  of,  230. 

Mildews,  167,  174. 

Milk.  1. 

Milk-curdling  ferment,  218,  221. 

Milk  machinery,  7. 

Milk  secreted,  211. 

Mining,  12. 

Mixed  husbandry.  11,  28,  279, 

Moisture  and  germination,  133,  141. 

Moisture,  conservation,  56,  65.  71. 

Moisture  in  soils,  .38,  47. 

Mold,  20.  51. 

Molds,  173. 

Molecules,  32. 

Monocalcic  phosphate,  95. 

Monuments,  wearing  away,  30. 

Moss,  31,  33. 

Mountains,  16,  29. 

Muck,  83. 

Mulch  of  soil,  57,  65,  69.  71,  149. 

Muley,  262. 

Mullein,  36. 

Muriate  of  potash.  96,  123. 

Muriatic?  acid  in  stomach,  218. 

Muscle  cell,  231 


Mustard,  79. 
Muzzle,  273,  276.  277. 

Nebraska  Experiment  Station,  63. 
Nervous  processes,  210. 
Nicholson,  quoted,  14. 
Nile,  24. 

Nitrate  of  soda.  90,  92. 
Nitrates.  90,  91.  104. 
Nitrification.  38,  65,  91. 
Nitrites,  104. 

Nitrogen.  87.89.  98.  101.  116.  203. 
Nitrogen,  amount  in  soil,  25. 
Nitrogen-gatherers,  79,  80, 181,  192. 
Nitrogen  in  food,  213,  245. 
Numbers  of  species,  14. 
Nurserymen's  moss,  33. 
Nutrition  in  cells,  210. 
Nutritive  ratio,  247,  257. 

Oats,  47,  79. 
Oats  for  forage,  193. 
Oats,  regermination.  136. 
Oats,  water  in.  47. 
OflSces  of  the  plant.  106. 
Oil-meal,  267. 
Oil  of  vitriol,  92,  94. 
Olericulture,  3. 
Onion  seeds,  133,  136. 
Opium,  109. 

Optimum  temperature,  119,  134. 
Orange,  budding,  144. 
Oranges,  108.  [197. 

Orchard-grass,    110.  181,   190.    196, 
Orchards,  tilling,  161.  [66. 

Organic  matter,  16,  19,  28,  33,  34. 
Organic  matter  removed  by  bum- 
Organisms,  21.  [ing,  29. 
Ornamental  plants,  3,  109. 
Ornithology,  8,  15. 
Osmosis,  113. 


•332 


INDEX 


OstTeaculmre,  3. 

Ox.  212. 

Oxen,  standards  for.  252. 

Oxygen.  90.  116,  129. 

Oxygen  and  germination.  133,  134. 

Oxygen  in  blood,  211,  223,  246. 

Oxygen  in  breathing.  224. 

Oyster-raising,  3. 

Palatability,  244,  254. 

Palisades,  30. 

Pancreatic  joice,  215,  221. 

Paradise,  12. 

Parasitic  fnngi,  166,  173. 

Paris  green,  168,  176. 

Parkinson's  book,  13. 

Parsnip  seeds,  133. 

Particles  of  soU,  size  of,  39,  43,  44. 

Pasttires,  harrowing,  160,  181. 

Pastures,  permanent,  180,  197. 

Pathology,  8. 

Pea  family,  79. 

Pea  mildew,  167. 

Pea,  regermination,  136. 

Peach,  budding,  144. 

Peaches,  106. 

Pear-blight,  167. 

Pear,  propagating,  144. 

Pears,  tilling,  162. 

Pea5,  92,  193. 

Peas,  to  prevent  erosion,  51. 

Peat,  20,  83. 

Pedigree,  262,  263,  278. 

Pepsin,  218. 

Peptones.  219,  223. 

Perennials,  146. 

Perfumery.  109. 

Pests,  10.  157. 

Pests  ard  stock,  205. 

Pets,  204. 

Phietum  pr»:.e!:se.  195. 


Phosphate,  SS,  94,  95,  104. 

Phosphatic  rocks,  94. 

Phosphoric  acid,  25,  93,  98,  101. 

Phosphorus,  87,  88,  104,  116,  203. 

Physics,  6.  [170,  174- 

Physiological    troubles,    166,   167, 

Physiology,  8. 

Pigs.    See  also  swine. 

Pigs,  standards  for,  232. 

Pin-bone,  273,  276.  278. 

Flanker,  71,  75,  76. 

Plant-food  defined,  128. 

Plant-food  elements,  87. 

Plant,  how  it  lives,  112. 

Plant-knowledge.  7. 

Plant-Uee,  166,  168. 

Plants,  species  and  varieties.  14. 

Plaster,  95. 

Plowing,  66,  162,  171. 

Plowing  green-crops,  60,  65. 

Plowing  to  dry  the  land,  6S. 

Flows,  73,  74. 

Flnm,  bndding,  144. 

Flnm-rot,  175. 

Foa  pratensis,  1%. 

Points  of  animals,  2G2,  273,  275. 

Poisons  for  insects,  168. 

Pomace,  84,  256. 

Pomology,  3. 

Ponds  and  soil,  19. 

Pork.  -203. 

Pot,  with  plant,  46. 

Potash,  95,  98,  101. 

Potash,  amount  in  soil,  25. 

P-':5  ==:-:i:    ".  IM.  116. 


-i-^,  167. 

:  3gation,  146,  155. 


P::i 


:   r.  Irri.  15i 


INDEX 


33J 


Potato,  varieties  of,  14. 
Potatoes,  1,  96,  108. 
Potatoes  and  muriate,  96. 
Potatoes,  tilling,  160. 
Potatoes,  water  in,  47. 
Potential  plant-food,  36. 
Poultrj',  breeds  of,  260. 
Poultry-raising,  3,  203. 
Prairies,  stock  on,  266. 
Precipices,  30. 
Precipitate,  235. 
Precipitation,  59. 
Prepotent,  261. 
Preventives  for  pests,  167. 
Principles,  15. 
Principles  of  pruning,  165. 
Propagation  of  plants,  132. 
Prophylaxis,  175. 
Proteids,  247,  248. 
Protein,  243,  244,  248. 
Protoplasm,  113,  127. 
Proventriculus,  220,  235. 
Pruning,  163. 
Ptomaines,  224,  236. 
Ptyalin,  216,  233. 
Puddling,  68. 
Pump,  7,  169,  170,  177. 
Pumpkin,  germination,  124. 
Pure-blood  stock,  263. 
Purse,  278. 

Quack-grass,  31. 

Quadrupeds,  201. 

Quantity  of  food,  250,  258,  266. 

Quarries,  30. 

Quarter,  273. 

Quick-lime,  40,  97. 

Quince,  propagation,  144. 

Quinces,  109. 

Quinine,  109. 

Babbits,  204. 


Ragweed,  31. 

Rain  drops,  35. 

Rainfall,  43,  50,  59,  63,  107. 

Rakes,  69. 

Range,  203. 

Rape,  79. 

Ratio,  nutritive,  247,  357. 

Ration,  214,  250,  271. 

Red-clover  is  tap-rooted,  146,  147. 

Red-top,  181,  190. 

Refuse,  78. 

Regermiuation,  136. 

Remedies  for  pests,  167. 

Rennet,  235. 

Reservoir  for  water,  54,  63,  67. 

Resources  of  soil,  25. 

Respiration  in  animals,  224. 

Respiration  iu  plants,  117. 

Rest  of  animals,  228. 

Resting  the  land,  80. 

Retentive  soils,  38,  39. 

Reverted  phosphate,  95. 

Ribs,  273. 

Rice,  108. 

Rill,  35.  [179,  259. 

Roberts,   I.    P.,  chapters    by,  145, 

Roberts,  quoted,  25,  35,  36,  45,  63, 

72,  74,  76,  84,  86,  105,  207. 
Rock  and  soil,  16,  42. 
Roller,  71,  76,  155. 
Root  crops,  96. 
Root,  evolution  of,  31. 
Root,  growth  of,  121,  131. 
Root-hairs,  113,  124. 
Root-pressure,  115,  125. 
Root-pruning,  165.  [32,  88,  104. 

Roots   and  soil  formation,   16.   21, 
Rose-bug,  175. 
Rot  of  plum,  175. 
Rotation,  79,  179,  197,  207. 
Rotation  and  pests,  168. 


334 


INDEX 


Batten  stones,  23. 
RoughSkge,  191. 
SBminants,  216,  233. 
Rump,  273,  274,  278. 
Rusts,  174. 

Rye  and  pastures,  161. 
Eye  for  forage,  192. 
Eye  to  plow  under,  67, 


?9. 


Rye,  to  prevent  erosion,  51. 

SaJiva,  215,  232. 

Saltpetre,  90. 

Salts,  115,  123,  214. 

Sand-bars,  35. 

Sand,  moisture  in,  51. 

Saiid-sl.ornis,  25. 

Sands  held  by  plants.  111. 

Sap,  114,  115,  124,  126,  13L 

Saprophrte,  173. 

Sawdust,  63. 

Seal),  167. 

Seaile  insects,  166,  168. 

Stales,  experiment  wit^  59. 

Seienees,  5. 

Sea  trails,  206. 

Sea  margins,  19. 

Sea^reed,  31. 

Sea-wrack,  19. 

Season  to  prone,  164. 

Secretion,  210. 

Sedges,  19, 193. 

Seed,  155. 

Seedage,  133,  135. 

S©ed-l>ed,  70,  71,  134,  145,  155. 

Seedlings,  raising  of,  135. 

Seeds,  germination,  133,  142,  145 

Semi-ftaples,  108. 

Skade,  108. 

Shaler,  referred  to,  36. 

Sheep,  3,  108.  201,  212. 

Sheep  stssiaeh,  233. 


Sheltering  manure,  62. 
Ships  dusty  at  sea,  36. 
Shower,  35. 
Silage,  254,  2.58. 
Silicon,  87. 
Silo,  256,  265. 
Single-celled  animals,  208. 
Slips,  138. 
Smuts,  170,  178. 
Snowballs,  layering,  140. 
Soaking  seeds,  134. 
Soap  washes,  168. 
Sod,  influenee  mi  soil,  21,  68. 
Sod  in  orchards,  161. 
Sodium,  116. 
Si:  -.-t  stock,  202. 
.-    ..    :;L:Tnts  of,  16,  42. 
Soii,  moisture  in,  50. 
Soil-mulch,  57,  65,  69,  71,  149. 
Soil  particles,  size  of,  39,  43,  44. 
Soil,  texture  of,  37. 
Soiling  crops,  191. 
Sorauer,  referred  to.  124,  126,  127. 
Specialized,  232. 

Specialty-fanning.  11,  279.  [14. 

Species,  number  of  in  cultivation, 
Speculation,  12.  [by,  37. 

Spencer,  J.  "W.,  quoted  35;  chapter 
Sphagnum,  20,  33. 
Spices,  109. 
Spittle,  232. 
Spores,  169,  218,  234. 
Sport,  262. 
Spraying,  165,  169. 
Springs,  48,  50. 
Squash-bug,  167. 
Squash,  seedling  of,  131. 
Squashes  and  moisture,  57. 
StaUe-Bumure,  21,  41. 
Stable-manures,  65,  61,  82,  89,  93, 
201,  265,  268. 


INDEX 


335 


Stables.  82,  86,  258,  269.  272. 

Standards,  feeding,  252. 

Staples,  5.  108. 

Starch,  28,  IIS,  127,  129,  130.  233. 

Starch  equivalent,  247. 

Starch  in  food,  213,  246. 

Steer,  score  of,  277. 

Stem,  growth  of,  121,  130. 

Stifle,  273. 

Stink-bug,  167. 

Stock,  3,  201. 

Stock  and  pastures,  181. 

Stock,  care  of,  259. 

Stock,  in  grafting,  139. 

Stockbridge.  referred  to,  36. 

Stomach.  212,  233. 

Stomata,  114,  117,  124. 

Stones  grow  smaller,  30. 

Stones,  rotten,  23. 

Stratification,  136. 

Straw,  83. 

Streams,  action  of,  35. 

Streams  carry  soil,  23. 

Struggle  for  existence  iu  tree-top' 

163,  173. 
Stubble  and  plowing,  68. 
Stubble  refuse,  78,  80. 
Sturtevant,  quoted,  14. 
Subsoil,  74. 
Subsoiling,  68. 
Subsurface,  155. 
Sulfate  of  ammonia,  92. 
Sulfate  of  potash,  96. 
Sulfur,  87,  116. 
Sulfur  fungicide,  169. 
Sulfuric  acid,  33.  92,  94,  95. 
Sugar,  28. 
Sugar-beet,  147. 

Sugar-cane  and  muriate,  96,  146. 
Sugar  in  plant,  120,  127,  131. 
Sugar  in  digestion,  223. 


Sugars  in  food,  213,  246. 

Summer-fallowing,  158. 

Sunlight  and  growth,  118. 

Superphosphate,  104. 

Surgery,  8. 

Swamps,  20. 

Sweat,  211. 

Sweet  potatoes,  148. 

Sweet  vernal  grass,  191. 

Swine,  201. 

Swine  and  pests,  205. 

Swine,  feeding,  272. 

Switch,  273. 

Symbols  of  elements,  103. 

Syringe.  169. 

Tankage,  203,  206. 

Tap-roots,  110,  147. 

Tarr,  referred  to,  14,  35,  36. 

Teats,  273,  276. 

Temperature  for  barns,  270. 

Temperature  for  germination,  134. 

Temperature  of  soil,  38. 

Texas  steer,  212. 

Textiles,  109. 

Texture  of  soil,  31. 

Thawing,  influence  on  soils,  68. 

Thinning,  166. 

Threshers,  7. 

Thrips,  168. 

Thurl,  273,  276,  278. 

Tillage  and  water  capacity,  54,  63. 

Tillage  defined,  64,  72. 

Tillage  of  the  soil,  64,  159. 

Timber,  2,  3,  109. 

Timothy  for  meadows,  186, 189,  199. 

Timothy,  picture  of,  195,  196. 

Toadstools,  173. 

Tobacco  and  muriate,  96. 

Tobacco  insecticide,  168. 

Tomatoes,  106. 


33G 


INDEX 


Tools,    66,   69,    71,  '.4,  75,  76,  158, 
Toxins,  224,  236.         [160,  162.  171. 
Training,  163. 
Transpiration,  114,  120,  125. 
Transportation,  11,  15. 
Transportation  of  soils,  22. 
Tricalcic  phosphate,  94. 
Trifolium   hybridum,   incarnatum, 
medium,  pratense,    repens,   193, 
Trimming,  163.  [194. 

Tropical  plants,  119. 
Trypsin,  221. 
Tull,  Jethro,  44,  72. 
Turgidity,  113.  127. 
Turkeys,  3,  201. 

fjdder,  273.  276. 
tlnderdrainage,  40,  53,  60. 

Valleys,  16. 

Vegetables,  3,  11,  109. 

Ventilation.  228,  269. 

Viability,  133. 

Vilmorin,  quoted,  14. 

Villus,  222,  235,  236. 

Vineyards  and  rose-bugs.  175. 

Vitality  of  seeds,  133. 

Vitriol,  oil  of,  92.  94.  [206. 

Voorhees,  referred  to,  84,  86,  105, 

Waste  in  animals,  228,  229. 

Water,  amount  soil  will  hold,  47,  59. 

Water,  driving  off  by  heat,  29. 

Water-  for  stock,  271. 

Water  in  foods,  243. 

Water  in  the  plant,  113,  114. 

Water-lily,  19. 

Wuter  moves  lands,  23. 

Water  plants,  19. 

Water-sprouts.  165. 


Water-table,  40,  46. 

Water  used  by  plants,  63,  74. 

Weather,  9,  10. 

Weathering,  16,  30. 

Weeds,  69,  70,  76,  81,  159,  160,  170, 

Weeds  and  stock,  205.  [179. 

Weeds,  kinds,  15. 

Weevils,  175. 

Weight  of  water  on  acre,  63. 

Wells,  48. 

Wheat,  1,  4,  26,  108,  196. 

Wheat  and  mullein,  36. 

Wheat  and  pastures,  181. 

Wheat,  germination,  124,  136. 

Wheat,  propagation,  132. 

Wheat,  seed-bed  for.  148,  152,  155, 

Wheat,  tilling,  160.  [158. 

Wheeler,  referred  to,  45. 

White  hellebore,  169. 

WUlow,  31,  146. 

Windbreaks,  107,  111. 

Windmills,  7. 

Winds  and  soils,  24. 

Wine,  11.  109. 

Wing,  H.  H.,  chapter  by,  240. 

Wing,  H.  H.,  referred  to,  278. 

Wisconsin.  University  of,  13,  277- 

Withers,  273.  276. 

Wolves,  212. 

Wood  or  timber,  2,  3. 

Wood  products,  109. 

Wool,  1. 

Wool-waste,  204. 

Work  of  animals,  228. 

Worms.  166. 169. 

Worn-out  lands,  21. 

Wounds,  healing,  163,  164. 

Zoology,  8. 


FRorErrr  ui-.. 


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